m

• Counseling


  A relationship between a counselor and a client aimed at helping the client
• Counseling relationship


  • Necessary for counseling to be effective
  • Sufficient for constructive changes to occur in clients (according to some counselors)
• Person-centered approach/intervention


  Counseling involves qualities like empathic understanding, respect and acceptance for clients' current states of being, congruence or genuineness, and active listening
• Counseling as a repertoire of interventions


  • Counselors need to carefully consider which interventions to use, with which clients, and what probability of success
  • Counselors' repertoires of interventions reflect their theoretical orientations
  • Some counselors are eclectic and use interventions derived from a variety of theoretical positions
• Self-help


  • Helping is a process with the overriding aim of helping clients to help themselves
  • Personal responsibility is at the heart of the processes of effective helping and self-help
• Choice


  • People are choosers and can make good or poor choices, but they can never escape the "mandate to choose among possibilities"
  • Helping aims to help clients become better choosers
• Problems of living


  • Helping is primarily focused on the choices required for the developmental tasks, transitions and individual tasks of ordinary people rather than that on the needs of the moderately to severely disturbed minority
  • Developmental tasks are tasks which people face at different stages of their lives
  • Transitions can be positive or negative
  • Individual tasks represent the existential idea of people having to create their lives through their daily choices
• Counselor's model and techniques only affects outcome by 15%
• Client's making appointment only affects outcome by 15%
• Client's belief that the counselor is warm, trustworthy, nonjudgmental, and empathetic has 30% effect on outcome
• Client's own strengths, resources, duration of complaint, and social support has 40% effect on outcome
• Characteristics of effective helpers

  • Self-awareness and understanding
  • Good psychological health
  • Sensitivity to and understanding of racial, ethnic, and cultural factors in self and others
  • Open mindedness
  • Objectivity
  • Competence
  • Trustworthiness
  • Interpersonal attractiveness
• Verbal communication


  • Messages sent with words
  • Language
  • Content
  • Amount of speech
  • Ownership of speech
• Vocal communication


  • Volume
  • Articulation
  • Pitch
  • Emphasis
  • Rate
• Bodily communication


  • Eye contact
  • Facial expression
  • Posture
  • Gestures
  • Physical proximity
  • Clothes and grooming
  • Touch
• Taking action communication


  • Messages sent when not face to face with others, e.g. sending a follow-up note
• Water has strong hydrogen bonds due to its high polarity and large electronegativity difference between oxygen and hydrogen.
• The strength of hydrogen bonds depends on the electronegativity difference between atoms involved, with larger differences resulting in stronger bonds.
• Hydrogen bonding is the weakest type of intermolecular force