4.3.3 - Gender

• Sex and gender - AO1

  Sex-role stereotype: expectations about behaviours/qualities/ characteristics that are appropriate for males and for females. 

  These are shared by members of a society/culture and reinforced by them (e.g. through parents, peers and the media)

  Females-nurturing, co-operative, domesticated, emotional, passive (non-aggressive) and pretty. Males-strong, independent, physical, aggressive and unemotional.
• Sex and gender - AO1


  They act as a short-cut to appropriate behaviours in a given context: girls will behave in ways they understand to be typically female, and boys will behave in ways they understand to be typically male

  Sex-role stereotypes are developed either through observation, imitation and reinforcement (SLT); through development of cognitive awareness of gender, egthrough the development of gender constancy (Kohlberg); as part of the process of internalisation (Freud).
• Sex and gender - AO1


  Some sex-role stereotypes are incorrect assumptions and can lead to sexist and damaging attitudes. E.g. males should not cry, ‘gender-suitable’, impact subjects, which stretch into careers. 

  Individuals perceived as exhibiting incorrect stereotypes are subjected to hostility and pressure to assume ’correct’ sex roles
• Sex = being genetically male (xy) or female (xx), this cannot be changed
• Gender = is a psychosexual status, a person’s sense of maleness or femaleness
• Sex and gender - AO3

  + Research support - Furnham and Farragher (2000) men were more likely to be shown in autonomous roles in professional contexts, women occupying familial roles in domestic settings

  + Research support - Smith and Lloyd (1978) observed adults playing with babies dressed either in boy’s or girl’s clothes. Boys encouraged to be adventurous and active and use a hammer-shaped rattle, girls to be passive, given a doll and praised for being pretty. Sex-roles differentially reinforced
• Sex and gender - AO3

  +SLT can explain the differences in gender-role expectations over time, as the result of changing norms, beliefs and social influences. Example… Biological explanations would find this much harder to explain due to hard-determinism

  +Mead, influence of culture on sex-role stereotypes, as they differ substantially across cultures. Environmental learning rather than biology. 
• Sex and gender - AO3


  -David Reimer case study challenges nurture, despite being nurtured as a female, receiving years of reinforcement, his biological make-up overturned this, and  determined his gender identity.

  + Real-life applications, understand negative effects of stereotypes, egacademic/career expectations and making efforts to reduce these, e.g. women in STEM programmes and men’s mental health campaigns (as they are learned and reinforced).
• Androgyny - AO1

  Androgyny: possessing a balance of masculine and feminine traits. 

  Bem (1974) devised the Sex Role Inventory as a measure of androgyny (BSRI) consists of 60 characteristics/traits (20 masculine, 20 feminine and 20 neutral), respondents rate themselves of a 7-point scale

  Masculine items: dominant, competitive and athletic

  Feminine items: gentle, affectionate and sympathetic 
• Androgyny - AO1

  4 catergorisation

  •Masculine: high score on masculine items and low on feminine

  •Feminine: high score on feminine and low on masculine 

  •Androgyny- high score on both masculine and feminine

  •Undifferentiated- low score on both masculine and feminine

  Bem stated those with a high androgyny score are more psychologically healthy/have better mental well-being than those who score as strongly masculine, strongly feminine (or undifferentiated).
• Androgyny - AO3

  +BSRI valid and reliable. Development of the scale involved 50 male and 50 female students judging 200 traits in terms of gender desirability – top 20 of each were chosen (less bias). Piloting with 1000 students showed the BSRI reflected their own reported gender identity. Follow-up study of smaller sample of the same group produced similar scores when tested a month later- test-retest reliability. 
• Androgyny - AO3

  -Cultural bias, panel of students from Stanford uni in the US were given the initial 200 traits to rate in terms of gender desirability. BSRI ethnocentric 

  -Outdated measure, stereotypical ideas of masculinity and femininity have changed since 1974 à lacks temporal validity. Hoffman and Borders (2001) asked undergrads to rate the items on BSRI and only the actual adjectives ‘masculine’ and ‘feminine’ were perceived as specfically masculine and feminine
• Androgyny - AO3

  -Issues with self-report questionnaire- subjective interpretation/ application of the 7-point scale may differ, lack of construct validity- gender is far more complex than to be reduced to a single score based on personality characteristics, gender can be fluid

  -People with a higher proportion of masculine traits are better adjusted and highly valued in Western Culture e.g. independence and competitiveness.
• Androgyny - AO3

  +Burchardt and Serbin (1982) used the BSRI on undergrads and psychiatric patients. Androgynous females scored lower of depression and social introversion (SI). Hopsitalised males: androgynous & masculine= less deviant and depressed. Undergrad males: androgynous =lower introversion. Androgyny associated with good mental health, Masculine types scored equally well
• Role of chromosomes and hormones -AO1

  •Chromosome pair 23 determines sex, XY for males and XX for females

  •Chromosome pattern determines levels of various hormones, males and females produce the same hormones but in different concentrations SRY gene on Y chromosome controls sexual characteristics   (e.g development of testes) through production of androgens, especially testosterone
• Role of chromosomes and hormones -AO1 -Testosterone:

  controls the development of male sex organs. Masculinises the brain, linked to development of areas involved in spatial skills  (sex).Linked to aggression and competitiveness (gender)•In XX pattern, female sexual development is governed primarily by oestrogen
• Role of chromosomes and hormones -AO1 - Oestrogen:


   triggers female sexual characteristics e.g. female reproductive organs (e.g. fallopian tubes, ovaries and the vagina) and regulates menstruation. Feminising the brain promoting neural connections/equal use of both hemispheres  (sex). Associated with caring and sensitiveness, low levels during menstruation women may experience emotionality and irritability- PMT (gender) 
• Role of chromosomes and hormones -AO1 -Oxytocin:

   stimulates lactation post-birth, reduces the stress hormone cortisol (sex) and facilitates bonding (gender). May explain why females are more interested in intimacy in relationships than men. Oxytocin levels are the same when kissing and during sex
• Role of chromosomes and hormones -AO3

  + Atypical sex chromosome patterns show the the important effects on gender development e.g. Klinefelters, less testosterone- passive, shy and lack interest in sexual activity.

  +Dabbs et al found male prisoners with higher levels of testosterone were more likely to have committed sexually abusive and violent crimes and were more likely to break prison rules, especially those involving confrontation. Linked to aggression typically male characteristic
• Role of chromosomes and hormones -AO3

  -Hard determinism, sex= gender. Strong emphasis on role of chromosomes sees gender as fixed and binary from birth, whereas gender might be viewed as a continuum and fluid. SLT better explanantion
• Role of chromosomes and hormones -AO3

  -Reductionism oversimplifies gender to say that gender-related behaviour is simply due to biological structures and chemicals -  SLT (reinforcement), cognitive (schemas), psychodynamic (childhood experiences). Interactionism more holistic. Also, hormones simplistically viewed as ’male’ and ‘female’, oestradiol a type of oestrogen is crucial for sex drive, erectile function and sperm production. 
• Role of chromosomes and hormones -AO3


  + Young (1966) changed the sexual behavior of both male and female rats by manipulating the amount of male and female hormones that the rats received during their early development. They displayed “reversed” sexual behavior and the effects were unchangeable. 
• Atypical sex chromosome patterns - Klinefelter’s syndrome XXY affects 1 in 500-1000

  •Physical characteristics:

  extra height/long legs, small testes, lacking facial/body hair, gynecomastia, broad hips and rounded body contours

  •Psychological characteristics: 

  reduced language and reading ability, dyslexia, increased risk of anxiety disorders and depression, passive temperament, shy, low sex drive and problems with executive functions e.g. problem-solving
• Atypical sex chromosome patterns - Turner’s syndrome XO affects 1 in 2000

  •Physical characteristics:

   short stature, no breast development, short webbed neck, low-set ears later infertility/no menstrual cycle as ovaries fail to develop, broad ‘shield’ chest and hips not much bigger than waist

  •Psychological characteristics:

   higher-than-average language skills/reading, poor on spatial, visual and maths tasks and poor social intelligence/maturity
• Atypical sex chromosome patterns - AO3

  +Applications to medical interventions e.g. oestrogen therapy in females with TS to help normalise physical development during puberty-increasing height and breast development. Testosterone for KS, to help develop facial hair, sex drive and muscle mass. Improving quality of life.
• Atypical sex chromosome patterns - AO3

  + Contribution to understanding biological basis of gender differences.Comparing both chromosome typical and atypical individuals highlights differences in their physical and psychological characteristics. These are inferred to be as a result of biological differences/abnormal chromosomal structure. Suggesting these characteristics are innate
• Atypical sex chromosome patterns - AO3

  -Behavioural differences might be due to nurture. E.g. social immaturity of Turner’s Syndrome could result from women with the condition being treated as younger than they are due to their immature appearance. Difficulty fitting in might due to treatment of others, due to difference in appearance, rather than biologically-determined social intelligence.
• Atypical sex chromosome patterns - AO3

  -Methodological issues with research. Generally, those with the most severe symptoms are included in the Klinefelter’s database-typical profile may be distorted. Often small samples. Important factors not consistently controlled e.g. amount of special education or tutoring intervention, whether or not they were naive to testosterone treatment; parental education and socioeconomic differences, and family history of speech, language or reading disability.
• Cognitive explanations: Kohlberg’s theory

  Cognitive theory – relates to child’s understanding of gender, which becomes more sophisticated with age- it is a biological process based on changes in the brain –biological maturation. Children actively seek out and organise their own learning of gender,
• Cognitive explanations: Kohlberg’s theory - Gender identity 

  (2-3yrs):

  identify/label themselves as a boy or girl. By age 3 most can label others.
• Cognitive explanations: Kohlberg’s theory --Gender stability

   (4–6 yrs): understanding of (own) gender as fixed over time. They may find this difficult to apply to other people or situations e.g. a man with long hair may be seen as woman or believing people change genders if they engage in activities associated with the opposite gender–female builder, male nurse.
• Cognitive explanations: Kohlberg’s theory - Gender constancy

   (7+ yrs):

   understanding that gender is consistent across time and situations despite changes in outward appearance (clothing, hair etc) or context. They can also apply this to others, the child is no longer egocentric.
• Cognitive explanations: Kohlberg’s theory - Gender constancy


  Gender constancy marks the point when children seek out gender-appropriate role-models to identify with and imitate.

  Once the child fully develops and internalises the concept of gender, they look for evidence which confirms it, and gender stereotyping occurs.

  This is known as self-socialisation as it does not depend on external reinforcement 
• Cognitive explanations: Kohlberg’s theory - AO3

  + More holistic than biological explanations, gender concepts occur through environmental interactions (experiences with others and self-socialisation) which are restricted by biologically controlled mental capabilities (e.g. egocentrism) at a given time. Interactionism.
• Cognitive explanations: Kohlberg’s theory - AO3

  + Slaby and Frey (1975) structured interview of young children: ‘were you a little girl or a little boy when you were a baby?’ and ‘when you grow up will you be a mummy or a daddy?’. Children did not recognise that these traits were stable over time until they were 3 or 4 years old, supporting the predictions of the theory. They found children in the gender constancy stage spent longer looking at same-sex adults, supporting the idea of seeking role models/self-socialisation 
• Cognitive explanations: Kohlberg’s theory - AO3

  +Damon (1977) told children a story of George who likes to play with dolls, but his parents did not approve as he was a boy. 4yrs said it was fine, 6yrs said it was wrong and 9yrs were more flexible, could differentiate between what is ‘wrong’ and not the norm- understanding develops with age. Constancy= rigid stereotypes
• Cognitive explanations: Kohlberg’s theory - AO3

  -GST states the search for gender appropriate behaviour starts earlier aged 2-3years . Kohlberg may have underestimated children’s abilities 

  -Methodological issues with interviewing children. Children may not have the vocabulary to adequately express what they are thinking, therefore it may not be a valid way of investigating cognitions. Poor evidence for Kohlberg’s theory, undermines its credibility.
• Cognitive explanations: Gender schema theory - AO1

  Gender schema theory (Bem, Martin & Halverson). 

  Gender schema:

   a mental representation of males and females and what is appropriate behaviour for each (based on experience) 

  This informs our own behaviour and what is expected of others. 
• Cognitive explanations: Gender schema theory - AO1


  Gender identity (boy or girl) develops at about age 2-3, after which the child actively develop their schema by seeking out appropriate behaviours for their own gender. Much earlier than age 7/during gender constancy which Kohlberg suggests
• Cognitive explanations: Gender schema theory - AO1

  Through experience, gender schemas develop over time (through assimilation) to include a range of behaviours and personality traits based on personalities (e.g. boys like cars, girls like dolls).

  By 6years, children have acquired a fixed and stereotypical idea about gender-appropriate behaviour.