11-15

• Student-centered philosophy


  • Learned by doing
  • Planning, teaching, and assessment evolve around the needs and abilities of students
  • Give students chance to use their abilities and experiences to solve problems
  • Find new ways of learning
  • Progressivism: Build the curriculum around the experiences, interests, and abilities of students
  • Encourage student to work cooperatively
  • Social reconstructionism: Encourages schools, teachers, and students to focus on their studies and energies on alleviating pervasive inequities
  • Wants to not only inform their students but rouse emotions
• Pedagogy


  The art and science of helping children to learn
• The different stages of childhood are divided according to what developmental theorists and educational psychologists define as specific patterns of behavior seen in particular phases of growth and development
• One common attribute observed throughout all phases of childhood is that learning is subject centered
• The field of growth and development is highly complex, and at no other time is physical, cognitive, and psychosocial maturation so changeable as during the very early years of childhood
• Because of the dependency of members of this age group, the main focus of instruction for health maintenance of children is geared toward the parents, who are considered to be the primary learners rather than the very young child
• The older toddler should not be excluded from healthcare teaching and can participate to some extent in the education process
• Physical development in infancy to toddlerhood

  • Exploration of self and the environment becomes paramount and stimulates further physical development
  • Patient education must focus on teaching the parents of very young children the importance of stimulation, nutrition, the practice of safety measures to prevent illness and injury, and health promotion
• Piaget's sensorimotor period


  The coordination and integration of motor activities with sensory perceptions
• Cognitive development in infancy to toddlerhood

  • As children mature from infancy to toddlerhood, learning is enhanced through sensory experiences and through movement and manipulation of objects in the environment
  • Toward the end of the second year of life, the very young child begins to develop object permanence - recognition that objects and events exist even when they cannot be seen, heard, or touched
  • Motor activities promote toddlers' understanding of the world and an awareness of themselves as well as others' reactions in response to their own actions
• Toddler development


  • The Toddler has the rudimentary capacity for basic reasoning, understands object permanence, has the beginnings of memory, and begins to develop an elementary concept of causality
  • With limited ability to recall past happenings or anticipate future events, the toddler is oriented primarily to the here and now and has little tolerance for delayed gratification
  • Children at this stage have short attention spans, are easily distracted, are egocentric in their thinking, and are not amenable to correction of their own ideas
  • Asking questions is the hallmark of this age group, and curiosity abounds as they explore places and things
  • They can respond to simple, step-by-step commands and obey such directives
  • Language skills are acquired rapidly during this period, and parents should be encouraged to foster this aspect of development by talking with and listening to their child
  • As they progress through this phase, children begin to engage in fantasizing and make-believe play. Because they are unable to distinguish fact from fiction and have limited cognitive capacity for understanding cause and effect, the disruption in their routine during illness or hospitalizations, along with the need to separate from parents, are very stressful for the toddler
  • Routines give these children a sense of security, and they gravitate toward ritualistic ceremonial-like exercises when carrying out activities of daily living
  • Separation anxiety is also characteristic of this stage of development and is particularly apparent when children feel insecure in an unfamiliar environment
• Erikson's psychosocial stages


  • Infancy: Trust vs. Mistrust
  • Toddlerhood: Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt
• Toddler psychosocial development


  • Children progress sequentially through accomplishing the tasks of developing basic trust in their environment to reaching increasing levels of independence and self-assertion
  • Their newly discovered sense of independence often is expressed by demonstrations of negativism
  • Children may have difficulty in making up their minds, and, aggravated by personal and external limits, they may express their level of frustration and feelings of ambivalence in words and behaviors, such as by engaging in temper tantrums to release tensions
  • With peers, play is a parallel activity, and it is not unusual for them to end up in tears because they have not yet learned about tact, fairness, or rules of sharing
• Teaching strategies for infancy and toddlerhood

  • Focus on normal development, safety, health promotion, and disease prevention
  • Use repetition and imitation
  • Stimulate the senses
  • Provide safety
  • Allow for play and manipulation of objects
• Teaching strategies for preschoolers

  • Build trust - allow for manipulation of objects
  • Use positive reinforcement
  • Encourage questions
  • Provide simple drawings and stories
  • Focus on play therapy
  • Stimulate the senses
• Preschooler development


  • Piaget's preoperational stage - egocentric; thinking is literal and concrete; pre-causal thinking
  • Erikson's initiative vs. guilt - taking on tasks for the sake of being involved and on the move; learning to express feelings through play
  • Salient characteristics: animistic thinking; limited sense of time; egocentric; transudative reasoning; separation anxiety; play is his/her work; fears loss of body integrity; active imagination; interacts with playmates
• School-aged child development


  • Piaget's concrete operations stage - developing logical thought processes and ability to reason syllogistically; understands cause and effect
  • Erikson's industry vs. inferiority - gaining a sense of responsibility and reliability; increased susceptibility to social forces outside the family unit; gaining awareness of uniqueness of special talents and qualities
  • Salient characteristics: able to draw conclusions and intellectually problem-solve; increased interest in peer relationships and activities; developing sense of self and self-esteem
• Salient Characteristics - Cognitive


  • Animistic thinking; limited sense of time; egocentric; transudative reasoning
• Salient Characteristics - Psychosocial


  • Separation anxiety; play is his/her work; fears loss of body integrity; active imagination; interacts with playmates
• Salient Characteristics - Cognitive (SCHOOL-AGED CHILD)

  • Able to draw conclusions and intellectually can understand cause and effect
• Salient Characteristics - Psychosocial (SCHOOL-AGED CHILD)


  • Fears failure and being left out of groups; fears illness and disability
• Salient Characteristics - Cognitive (ADOLESCENCE)

  • Propositional thinking; complex logical reasoning; can build on past experiences; conceptualizes the invisible
• Salient Characteristics - Psychosocial (ADOLESCENCE)


  • Personal fable—feels invulnerable, invincible/immune to natural laws
  • Imaginary audience—intense personal preoccupation
• Salient Characteristics - Cognitive (YOUNG ADULTHOOD)

  • Cognitive capacity is fully developed, but continuing to accumulate new knowledge and skills
• Salient Characteristics - Psychosocial (YOUNG ADULTHOOD)

  • Autonomous; independent; stress related to the many decisions being made regarding career, marriage, parenthood and higher education
• Salient Characteristics - Cognitive (MIDDLE-AGED ADULTHOOD)


  • Ability to learn remains steady throughout this stage
• Salient Characteristics - Psychosocial (MIDDLE-AGED ADULTHOOD)

  • Facing issues with grown children, changes in own health, and increased responsibility for own parents
• Salient Characteristics - Cognitive (OLDER ADULTHOOD)


  • Fluid intelligence - capacity to perceive relationships, to reason, and to perform abstract thinking, which declines with aging
  • Crystallized intelligence - the intelligence absorbed over a lifetime, which increases with experience
• Salient Characteristics - Psychosocial (OLDER ADULTHOOD)

  • Adjusting to changes in lifestyle and social status
• Family is one of the most important variables influencing patient outcomes
• The nurse educator and family should be allies
• It is important to choose the most appropriate caregiver to receive information
• Readiness to learn in children is very subject-centered, and motivation to learn in adults is very problem-centered
• Rate of learning and capacity for learning, as well as situational and emotional barriers to learning, vary according to stages of development
• Knowledge of tasks associated with each developmental stage will help individualize the approach to education in meeting the needs and desires of learners and their families
• Nurses, as the main source of health education, must determine what needs to be taught, when to teach, how to teach, and who will teach
• The focus of teaching should be in light of the developmental stage of the learner
• Teaching and Learning Process


  Combined processes where an educator assesses learning needs, establishes specific learning objectives, develops teaching and learning strategies, implements plan of work and evaluates the outcomes of the instruction
• Teaching


  Deliberate intervention that involves the planning and implementation of instructional activities and experiences to meet intended learner outcomes according to the teaching plan
• Learning


  A change in an individual's behavior caused by experiences or self-activity