A Level Research methods

• Types of research methods

  • Content analysis
  • Thematic analysis
  • Case studies
• Content analysis


  1. Data collection & Sampling method

  2. Coding the data

  3. Method of representing the data
• Content analysis


  • Allows a researcher to take qualitative data and transform it into quantitative data
  • Aim is to quantify patterns in communication
• Types of text for content analysis

  • Written text
  • Oral text
  • Iconic text
  • Audio-visual text
  • Hypertexts
• Thematic analysis


  An alternative to content analysis that does not convert qualitative data into quantitative data
• Thematic analysis


  1. Transcribe data

  2. Identify trends/themes in the meaning being conveyed

  3. Re-analyse themes and give them shorthand codes

  4. Annotate transcript with codes
• Case studies


  Detailed study of a single individual, small group, institution or event
• Case studies use information from a range of sources such as from the person concerned and their families and friends
• Case studies are generally longitudinal
• Evaluation of case studies

  • Detailed and provide rich in-depth data
  • Ethical issues around confidentiality and psychological harm
  • Researchers may become over-involved
• Reliability


  The extent to which we get the same results when we repeat the same measurement/test/study
• Ways of assessing reliability

  1. Test-retest

  2. Inter-observer reliability
• Test-retest reliability


  Giving the same test or questionnaire to the same person on different occasions and checking if the results are the same
• Inter-observer reliability


  Having more than one observer collect data independently and checking if their results are the same
• Ways of improving reliability

  1. Questionnaires: re-write or deselect ambiguous/complex questions

  2. Observations: use standardised procedures, train observers, increase number of observers
• Inter-observer reliability


  Establishing that multiple observers are applying behavioural categories in the same way
• Establishing inter-observer reliability


  1. Pilot study to check observers are applying categories the same way

  2. Report at end of study to show data was reliable
• Observing for inter-observer reliability


  1. Observers watch same event and record data independently

  2. Correlate data collected by two observers
• Improving reliability of questionnaires


  • Re-write or deselect questions if correlation is less than 0.8+
  • Remove open questions and replace with closed questions
• Improving reliability of interviews

  • Use same interviewer each time
  • Properly train interviewers to avoid leading questions
  • Use structured interviews with fixed questions
• Improving reliability of lab experiments

  • Use standardised procedure and controlled conditions
  • Ensure all participants exposed to same conditions
• Improving reliability of observations


  • Properly operationalise behavioural categories
  • Use measurable and self-evident behaviours
  • Avoid overlapping categories
  • Use exhaustive behaviour checklist
• Validity


  The extent to which a test/study produces a result that is legitimate and represents what is going on in the real-world
• Internal validity


  Whether the effects observed are due to the manipulation of the IV or some other factor
• External validity


  The extent to which findings can be generalised beyond the research setting, other populations and eras
• Ecological validity


  The extent to which findings can be generalised from one setting to other settings and situations such as everyday life
• Temporal validity


  The extent to which findings hold true over time
• Assessing validity through face validity


  • Eyeball the measuring instrument or pass it to an expert to check
• Assessing validity through concurrent validity


  • Check if results match those obtained on another recognised and well established test
• Improving validity of experiments

  • Use a control group
  • Use a standardised procedure
  • Use single blind or double blind procedures
• Improving validity of questionnaires

  • Introduce a lie scale
  • Assure respondents of anonymity
• Improving validity of observations

  • Change from overt to covert observation
  • Clearly operationalise categories
• Empirical methods


  Gaining information through direct observation or experimentation rather than from unfounded beliefs or claims
• Objectivity


  Collecting and interpreting data without being affected by the expectations and biases of the researcher
• Falsifiability


  The possibility of a theory being proven false
• Theory construction


  1. Gathering evidence using empirical methods

  2. Making clear and precise predictions through hypothesis testing

  3. Deriving new hypotheses from existing theories (deduction)
• Replicability


  The findings from a theory must be shown to be repeatable across a range of different contexts and circumstances
• Paradigm


  A shared set of assumptions and methods within a scientific field
• Paradigm shift


  When an existing paradigm is questioned and a new or updated paradigm causes a scientific revolution
• Sections of a scientific report

  • Abstract
  • Introduction
  • Method
  • Results
  • Discussion
  • Referencing