Long and Zie

• This study utilizes Cobarrubias' (1983) taxonomy of language ideologies as the framework to uncover the ideologies underlying language policy and planning (LPP) in the Philippines

  
• Language ideology


  A "set of beliefs about language articulated by users as a rationalization or justification of perceived language structure and use"

  
• Cobarrubias' (1983) taxonomy of language ideologies

  • Linguistic assimilation
  • Vernacularization
  • Linguistic pluralism
  • Internationalization

  
• Linguistic assimilation


  • Encourages a belief in the superiority of the dominant language, depriving the rights of non-dominant languages
• Vernacularization


  • Prioritizes indigenous languages, selecting, restoring, and using an indigenous language by giving it official language status and standardizing it
• Linguistic pluralism


  • Acknowledges and celebrates linguistic diversity, promoting and encouraging the preservation and advancement of various languages

  
• Internationalization


  • Adopts a language that is not native but serves as a dominant means of communication, either as an official language or as a language of instruction
• The Philippines is a postcolonial ethnolinguistically diverse and multilingual country with over 400 years of colonial history
• The Philippines implemented the Mother Tongue-based Multilingual Education (MTB-MLE) policy in 2009
• Previous studies on LPP in the Philippines mainly concentrate on specific historical fragments, ignoring the evolution of the LPP conducted in the country
• This study analyzes the ideologies embedded in the LPP implemented in the Philippines from the country's Spanish colonial period to the present
• Spanish became the official language of the Philippines after Spanish invaders occupied Cebu Island in 1565, marking the beginning of 333 years of colonial rule
• Factors influencing LPP under Spanish rule

  • The government in Spain
  • The Spanish colonial government
  • Christian missionaries
  • The indigenous people
• LPP implementation strategies under Spanish colonization

  1. Religious measures

  2. Educational measures
• Spanish was introduced and used as a foreign language during preaching, but its use was confined to evangelization and did not reflect the ideology of internationalism
• The promulgation of Spanish to indigenous people was initiated by decree in 1634, though the religious function of the Spanish remained unaffected
• The 1863 Education Act marked a turning point in Spanish's linguistic function in education, establishing free and compulsory education in Spanish
• The Spanish educational system remained highly elitist, and only a select group of Philippine elites had access to it
• The lack of consistency, as well as disobedience and ignorance on the part of some missionaries, ultimately resulted in the failure and abandonment of these decrees and policies
• During the early phases of Spanish colonialism in the Philippines, LPP displayed different ideologies, including linguistic assimilation, vernacularization, and internationalization
• During the Spanish colonial rule in the Philippines, a limited number of literacy schools (~2000) were established under the guise of primary schools, which focused on teaching religious content, calligraphy, and elementary mathematics
• There were no traditional schools that provided access to higher education during the Spanish colonial rule in the Philippines
• During the early phases of Spanish colonialism in the Philippines, LPP displayed differentiation characteristics and lacked the four categories of Cobarrubias' (1983) taxonomy of language ideologies
• The Spanish colonizers eventually recognized the significance of linguistic assimilation, albeit too late in promoting the use of Spanish in the country
• The indigenous population demonstrated a minimal inclination towards acquiring fluency in Spanish, primarily due to the complex interplay of factors
• Before American influence, most of the local population spoke their native languages, with <3% of the population able to communicate proficiently in Spanish
• Following the conclusion of the Spanish-American War, the Treaty of Paris (1898) witnessed the twilight of the Spanish regime and the dawn of the Americans
• In contrast to Spain, the United States implemented a language assimilation policy, which entailed promoting English in the Philippines and instituting English education for all
• By the end of American colonization, colonialists' language gained wider currency and acceptance in society through effective LPP
• Through compelling education and legislation, English was established as the dominant language, gained educational and administrational function, and the ideology of assimilation and internationalism was clearly reflected during LPP's conduction
• The successful promulgation of English and the ideology of assimilation and internationalism were aided by an English-only policy, implemented through effective and practical measures
• The earliest instance of LPP in America can be traced back to 1898 when William McKinley allowed the First Philippine Commission to introduce English as an instructional language as a crucial part of military strategy
• Due to the difficulties and varieties of local languages, the result was a monolingual system in English, with no attention paid to the other indigenous languages of the Philippines
• A new public, mandatory, and free education system was established by promulgating the Malolos Constitution
• Unlike the Spanish colonizers, the Americans installed a highly centralized educational system and supported it by importing American teachers and books into the colony to promote English as the MOI
• Under the robust enforcement of the English-only policy, the number of English speakers soared
• The success of the English-only policy was tightly linked with the indigenous people's eagerness to learn the language, the system of public instruction in English, and the incentives given to Filipinos who could gain better career opportunities, government service, and participation in politics by learning English
• When the country gained independence, over 35 percent of the population had mastered the language, which had become a widespread lingua franca used in government, schools, and society
• During the robust enforcement of the English-only policy, with its powerful ideology of assimilation, the vernacular languages were marginalized
• The Commonwealth period, which appeared in the late period of American colonial rule, was a transitional period that lasted from 1935 to 1946, during which the United States granted the Philippines a degree of self-government