Parasocial Relationships

• Parasocial Relationships:

  One-sided relationships where one person expends considerable amounts of energy, interest and time- although the other person (usually a celebrity) is unaware of their existence. The mass media and the internet have created the illusion of the viewer having a face-to-face relationship with a particular celebrity- an association so strong that an individual becomes a meaningful figure in the individual's life.
• Attachment Theory Explanation: Weiss; 3 Fundamental Properties of Adult Attachment

  Proximity Seeking- a key component of the attachment theory, individuals attempt to reduce the distance between themselves and their attachment figure. Fans exhibit these behaviours as part of their PSR. E.g. research shows that people like to stay informed about their favourite celebrities by collecting trivia, rearranging their schedules to watch them on TV, and trying to contact them by letters or in person.
• Attachment Theory Explanation: Weiss; 3 Fundamental Properties of Adult Attachment

  Secure Base- the presence of the attachment figure provides a sense of security for the individual, a 'safe haven' which allows them to explore the world. With a PSR, where there is little to no chance of rejection, the individual can then create a secure base so that they can explore other relationships in a safe way.
• Attachment Theory Explanation: Weiss; 3 Fundamental Properties of Adult Attachment

  Protest at Disruption- the best marker of an attachment may be the presence of prolonged distress following separation or loss of an attachment figure. E.g. when the BBC stopped their contract with Jeremy Clarkson for Top Gear, many fans were met with the raw emotions which is typical of the loss of an attachment figure. A petition to bring him back, fans claimed 'I want to cry...' and the show had 'given their lives purpose'.
• Attachment Theory Explanation: Attachment Style

  Cole and Leets found willingness to form a PSR with their favourite TV personality is related to attachment beliefs. Anxious-resistant attachments were most likely to enter a PSR as this attachment is characterised by the concern others won't reciprocate one's desire for intimacy. Arguing that they then turn to PSRs to satisfy their unrealistic and unmet relational needs. Their manifestations in PSRs reflects their desire for intimacy. Avoidants are least likely as they are less likely to seek real-life relationships, avoiding all intimacy.
• Absorption Addiction Model: Nature of PSRs

  Reasons why people form PSRs varies as from the reasons people form ftf relationships. People may form PSRs due to a lack of real relationships in their own lives. Shyness and loneliness can create a void with can be filled by PSRs. Such relationships may be appealing as it makes few demands, they don't risk the chance of criticism or rejection (Ache and McCutcheon). PSRs are more likely to be formed with characters who are considered as attractive to the viewer (perception of attractiveness) and who are viewed as similar (perception of homophily).
• Absorption Addiction Model: Levels of PSRs (Giles and Maltby)


  Using the Celebrity Attitudes Scale, they identified 3 levels:

  Entertainment-Social- fans are attracted to their favourite celebrity and will watch, keep up with, and learn about them for the purpose of entertainment and gossip.
• Absorption Addiction Model: Levels of PSRs (Giles and Maltby)

  Using the Celebrity Attitudes Scale, they identified 3 levels:

  Intense-Personal- this level involves a deeper level of involvement and reflects intensive and compulsive feelings about the celebrity; gaining more obsessive tendencies towards their 'favourite celebrity'.
• Absorption Addiction Model: Levels of PSRs (Giles and Maltby)

  Using the Celebrity Attitudes Scale, they identified 3 levels:

  Borderline-Pathological- the level is typified by having empathy with the celebrity as they identify with the celebrities successes and failures. It is also characterised by the overidentification with the celebrity and uncontrollable behaviours and fantasies about their life.
• Absorption Addiction Model: From Absorption to Addiction

  Lange et al claims that some introverted adolescence who lack meaningful relationships, it may lead them to become increasingly 'absorbed' by the lives of their PSRs. It involves an 'effortless focusing of attention' which fans believe that they have a special relationship with that celebrity, motivating them to learn more about the object of their attention.
• Absorption Addiction Model: From Absorption to Addiction

  If levels of absorption is high enough, the individual has to move onto higher levels of PS interaction which may eventually become addictive, leading them to act more extreme and delusional behaviours to sustain their satisfaction with the PSR. At the borderline-pathological level, it becomes addictive as progressively stronger involvement is required to remain 'connected'.
• AO3: Relationship Support for Factors Involved in PSRs

  Schippa et al conducted a meta-analysis of studies which explored factors instrumental in the PSR formation. Finding support for the assumption that people with higher levels of PSRs watched more TV. It also showed a significant correlation between the degree to which an individual perceives the character to be real and their tendency to form PSRs. Additionally, finding evidence that the likelihood of PSR formation was based of the characters attractiveness and perceived similarity (AAM).
• AO3: Are PSRs Linked to Loneliness? 1

  PSRs were initially believed to be a substitute for 'real' social relationships and therefore linked to feelings of social isolation. Although some research from Greenwood and Long shows individuals may develop PSRs as a way of dealing with feelings of isolation/loss; other research by Yanen et al has found no relationship between intensity of loneliness and intensity of PSRs.
• AO3: Are PSRs Linked to Loneliness? 2

  Eyal and Cohen found evidence of a link between PSRs and intensity of loneliness experienced in a PS 'breakup'. In a sample of 279 students who were fans of the TV series 'Friends', the intensity of their PSR with their favourite character was the strongest predictor of their feelings of loneliness after the last episode. Suggesting that PSRs might not only compensate for feelings of loneliness, but their loss can also create feelings of loneliness.
• AO3: AAM- Links to Mental Health

  Maltby et al used Eysenck Personality Qu (EPQ) assessing relationship between PSR level and personality. Finding that whereas entertainment-social was associated with extraversion, the intense-personal level was associated with neuroticism (tense, emotional, moody). Neuroticism is linked to anxiety and depression, explaining why higher levels of PSRs are associated with poorer mental health. Suggesting future research should explore the implications of borderline-pathological and psychoticism (impulsive, anti-social, egocentric). IDA- Ethical Implications
• AO3: Loss of Parasocial Relationships Linked to Attachment Style

  Cohen conducted a Israeli study, supporting the claim that viewers would show same negative response to the loss of a PSR to a real relationship. Adults completed questionnaires, including questions about how they would react if their favourite characters were removed from the show, and it assessed their attachment styles. Anxious-avoidant attachments anticipated the most negative responses, similar to those experienced after the loss of a close personal relationship- showing intensity of PSR and attachment style are linked.
• AO3: Cultural Similarities in PSRs

  People must interpret media content based on their own cultural background. Schmid and Klimmt investigated differences in the PSRs formed with Harry Potter in 2 contrasting cultures, Germany (individualist) and Mexico (collectivist). Despite differences between the cultures, both sets of fans displayed similar patterns of PSRs with Harry Potter. An online survey revealed that fans from both cultures admired him and found similarities between their lives and the relationships portrayed in the movies (AAM)- universal influence of media characters.