Summary

• Topics in Human Anatomy and Physiology

  • Human Body and Orientation
  • Basic Chemistry
  • Cell and Tissues
  • Integumentary System
  • Skeletal System
  • Muscular System
  • Nervous System
  • Endocrine System
  • Cardiovascular System
  • Respiratory System
  • Lymphatic System
  • Digestive System
  • Urinary System
  • Reproductive System
• Grading System: Lecture

  • Quizzes
  • Long Exams
  • Unit Exams
  • Recitation
  • Assignment
  • Seatwork/Board work
  • Attendance
  • Prelims
  • Midterm
  • Final Term Exams
• Grading System: Laboratory


  • Written Reports
  • Quizzes
  • Practical Exam
  • Prelims
  • Midterm
  • Final Term Examination
  • Performance
  • Attendance
  • Projects
• Prepared by: Ms. Sarah Pagulayan, LPT,MST
• Cell cycle


  Series of events that take place in the cell as it grows and divides

  
• Cell division


  Series of phases where the cell splits to increase its number in the population
• Cell cycle and cell division are for repair and regeneration of damage of tissues and organs. It is the formation of gametes to pass the hereditary information to the next generation. Example, dead cells can play important roles. The growth of multicellular organisms depends on cell division. As we know, all multicellular organisms, regardless of their size, start as a single cell. It is a relatively small number of consecutive cell divisions that can eventually change as a single cell into an organism with many billions of cells.

  
• In this section, we will look at how cell division is involved in the growth and reproduction of eukaryotic organisms.

  
• Chromosome


  A structure found inside the nucleus of a cell, made up of proteins and DNA organized into the genes

  
• Each cell normally contains 23 pairs of chromosomes

  
• Chromosome


  A long DNA molecule with part or all genetic material of an organism

  
• Histones


  Basic proteins that are the main protein in chromatin, which is a combination of DNA and protein that makes up the content of a cell nucleus

  
• Histones


  • They associate with DNA and help the DNA to condense it to chromatin
  • There are 2 types: core histones (H2A, H2b, H3, and H4) and linker histones (H1 and HB)
• Telomere


  Caps at the end of each strand of DNA that our chromosomes, like the plastic tips at the end of shoelaces, that prevent one chromosome from binding to another

  
• Centromere


  The constriction point on a chromosome that divides it into two sections or arms, and is the attachment site of the kinetochore protein during cell division

  
• Chromosome types

  • Telocentric
  • Acrocentric
  • Submetacentric
  • Metacentric

  
• Aneuploidy


  An abnormal chromosome number due to an extra or missing chromosome

  
• Abnormal chromosomes most often happen as a result of an error during cell division, either during meiosis or mitosis
• Many genetic disorders result from gene changes that are present in essentially every cell in the body, so the disorder is often affected in many systems and most can't be cured
• There is no treatment that will prevent embryos having chromosomal abnormalities, and the older the woman gets, the higher the chances that an embryo have an abnormal number of chromosomes

  
• Cri-du-Chat Syndrome


  A group of symptoms that result from missing a piece of the short arm of chromosome 5, characterized by a distinctive high-pitched cry, growth failure, microcephaly, facial abnormalities, and mental retardation
• Down Syndrome


  A chromosomal condition associated with intellectual disability, characteristic facial appearance, and weak muscle tone, typically caused by nondisjunction resulting in trisomy 21
• Klinefelter Syndrome


  A genetic condition in which a human male has an extra male (Y) chromosome, giving a total of 47 chromosomes

  
• Turner Syndrome


  A chromosomal condition that alters development in females, caused by the absence or incompleteness of one of the two X chromosomes normally found in women

  
• Williams Syndrome


  A developmental disorder affecting many parts of the body, characterized by mild to moderate intellectual disabilities or learning problems, unique personality characteristics, distinctive facial features, and heart and blood vessel problems, caused by the deletion of genetic material near the elastin gene on chromosome 7

  
• Chromosome structural alterations

  • Deletion
  • Duplication
  • Inversion
  • Translocation

  
• Cell cycle


  An orderly set of stages that take place between the time a cell divides and the time the resulting daughter cells also divide, controlled by internal and external signals

  
• Interphase


  The process in which a cell may double its entire content in preparation for cell division, including the G1, S, and G2 phases
• G1 phase


  A period when the cell increases in size in preparation for cell division, synthesizing RNA and proteins needed for DNA replication

  
• S phase


  The period during which DNA is synthesized and chromosomes are replicated, producing sister chromatids
• G2 phase


  The period between DNA synthesis and mitosis, when the cell continues to grow and produce the proteins needed for cell division

  
• GAP 1 PHASE (growth)


  1. Cell increases in size in preparation for cell division

  2. RNA and proteins including enzymes needed for making DNA are synthesized

  3. Cell makes a variety of proteins needed for DNA replication

  4. Cell stores ATP for cell division

  5. Between mitosis and initiation of replication of genetic material of the cell

  6. Cell is metabolically active and continuous to grow without replicating its DNA

  
• SYNTHESIS PHASE (DNA SYNTHESIS)


  1. DNA is synthesized and chromosomes are replicated

  2. Each strand of the double-stranded chromosomes produced is called a sister chromatid

  3. Occurs during interphase before mitosis or meiosis, and are responsible for the synthesis of replication of DNA

  4. Genetic material of a cell is doubled before it enters mitosis or meiosis allowing there to be enough DNA to be split into daughter cells

  
• GAP 2 PHASE


  1. Cell continues to synthesize RNA and proteins and increase in size

  2. G1 is Followed by s phase during which DNA replication takes place, the completion of DNA synthesis is followed by the G2 phase

  3. During G2, cell growth continuous and proteins are synthesized in preparation for mitosis

  4. RNA, proteins and other macromolecules required for multiplication of cell organelles, such as formation and cell formation are produced, as the cell prepares to go into the mitosis phase

  
• 1. PHASE


  Cells contents are distributed into daughter cells
• Mitosis


  The process of cell division which results in the production of two daughter cells from a single parent cell
• Prophase


  1. Chromosomes inside the cell nucleus condense and form tight structures

  2. Mitotic spindle begins to form

  3. Nucleolus disappears

  4. Chromosomes become even more condensed, nuclear envelope breaks down, mitotic spindle grows more and some microtubules start to "capture" chromosomes

  
• Metaphase


  1. Chromosomes align along equator of the cell, with one kinetochore facing each pole

  2. Cell checks to make sure all chromosomes are at the metaphase plate with their kinetochores correctly attached to microtubules

  
• Anaphase


  Sister chromatids separate, spindle fibers attached to kinetochores shorten and pull chromatids towards the poles, free spindle fibers lengthen and push poles of cell apart
• Telophase


  Spindle fibers disintegrate, nuclear envelopes form around both groups of chromosomes, chromosomes revert to their extended state, cytokinesis occurs