Immanuel Kant’s Ethical Theory

• A Good Will is the basis of morality

  • a life of reason is not necessarily a happy one
  • categorical imperative vs. counsels of prudence
  • happiness cannot be the foundation of morality
• what makes a will good?

  • obeying the moral law for the sake of the moral itself
  • good consequences do not make an action good
  • a good will is one that follows the categorical imperative
  • formula of universal law
  • formula of the end itself
• Kant’s Case Against Aristotle

  • Aristotle
  • telos of a human is happiness, edaimonia
  • happiness is the foundation and goal of the moral life
  • humans acquire virtue in order to achieve happiness
  • kant
  • yes everyone desires happiness, BUT the purpose of our lives as rational creatures should be to achieve happiness
  • humans have been given reason and will for a purpose other than to achieve happiness
• kant’s three points in response to Aristotle (H.C.M.)

  1. the life of reason is not necessarily a happy one
  2. ”categorical imperatives” vs. counsels of prudence
  3. happiness cannot be the foundation of morality
• ”The life of reason is not necessarily a happy one”

  • Kant thinks that if nature had intended people to be happy, they it would not have given us reason/will
  • instinct would have been a surer guide in practical matters
  • nature must have given humans reason/will for another purpose
• “Categorical imperatives vs. Counsels of prudence”

  • Kant: doing one’s moral duty is a different kind of activity than striving for one’s own happiness
  • to do one’s duty is to follow the moral ruels
  • moral rules are always absolute commands
  • moral rules are categorical imperatives
  • kant believe Aristotle only put forward Counsels of Prudence
  • kant believed that human happiness is too uncertain to provide ground for moral rules
• categorical imperatives


  commands that must be followed by everyone in every situation
• counsels of prudence


  general rules that experience has shown commonly result in human happiness
• “Happiness cannot be the foundation of morality”

  Aristotle

  • happiness is always good in itself, is the foundation of a moral life and is always good no matter how it is achieved
  • happiness is the greatest good and everything else acquires its goodness because it leads to happiness
  • Kant
  • happiness itself is not always a good thing
  • if a moral agent performs a good act, it is good in itself, whether or not it leads to happiness
• “A good will is the basis of morality“

  • A good will is the only thing of intrinsic worth
  • a good will is good without qualification
  • it is always good in itself, regardless of what might follow from it
  • a good will is good regardless of its surroundings/who possesses it
• What makes a will good?

  • obeying the moral law ”for the sake of the moral law itself”
  • good consequences do not make an action good
  • a good will is one that follows the categorical imperatives
  • formula of universal law
  • formula of the end in itself
• The formula of universal law

  • is my reason for doing what I am about to do a reason that everyone could have or am I making a special exception for myself?
  • Ex. If i borrow money, so can everyone else
• the formula of the end in itself

  • If I treat someone as an “end”, I treat them as intrinsically valuable, valuable in themself, not for some purpose they might serve
  • a person should be treated with respect and dignity is because they are creatures with reason and will
• Kant grounded his philosophy in reason alone (enlightenment)
• The formula of autonomy

  • the will of a rational being gives universal law
• maxim


  A rule or principle of action
• universal law


  something that must always be done in similar situations
• humans are ends in ourselves

  • we are not mere objects that exist to be used by others. We are rational and we have the ability to set our own goals and work toward them.
  • We exist for ourselves
• Autonomy

  • unlike other things in the world, we are self governed. We are bale to set our own ends, to make our own free decisions base don our rational wills.