Ethics

• Cultural relativism


  The view that good and bad are relative to culture, that "good" means "socially approved"
• Cultural practices vary over time and clime
• Cultural practices that vary

  • Infanticide in ancient Greece
  • Allowing the elderly to die by starvation among Eskimos
  • Stealing being considered morally right by the Spartans and Dobu
  • Killing members of neighboring tribes as a ritual rite of passage for young boys in Sparta
  • Fathers being permitted to slay their children without punishment in ancient Rome
  • Throwing deformed infants to hippopotamuses in East Africa
  • Relatives of the prosecutor determining guilt in ancient Clyme
  • Cannibalism among certain African tribes
  • Homosexual behavior being permitted or condemned in different cultures
  • Polygamy being practiced in Muslim societies but condemned in Christian cultures
  • Cooperation and kindness being viewed as vices in a tribe in Melanesia
  • Children being required to kill their aging parents in some societies
• King Darius of Persia performed an experiment to illustrate the widespread radical diversity of moral customs
• Moral customs that differ between cultures

  • Eating the bodies of deceased parents vs cremating them
  • Genital mutilation of girls in parts of Africa and Arabia vs condemning the practice
  • Suttee (widow throwing herself on husband's funeral pyre) in precolonial India
• Slavery was once deemed morally permissible in the United States, whereas now it is forbidden
• Racial discrimination was once widely approved, but now it is widely condemned
• Abortion was generally considered a grave sin and was illegal, but now the majority accepts it as a woman's right
• Premarital sex was considered immoral, but now a sizable portion of society accepts even casual sex as acceptable behavior
• Adulterers were stoned in Puritan New England, but now they are tolerated (some are even placed in the White House)
• Cultural relativism


  The view that morality is a cultural construct, and that there are no objective moral truths that hold for all peoples at all times
• Cultural relativists believe that "good" means "socially approved"
• Claims of moral relativists


  • Different societies have different moral codes
  • There is no objective standard to judge one societal code better than another
  • The moral code of our own society has no special status; it is merely one among many
  • There is no "universal truth" in ethics
  • The moral code of a society determines what is right within that society
  • It is arrogance to judge the conduct of other peoples; we should adopt an attitude of tolerance
• Cultural differences argument/diversity thesis

  1. Different cultures have different moral codes 2) Therefore, there is no objective "truth" in morality. Right and wrong are only matters of opinion, and opinions vary from culture to culture.
• The cultural differences argument has a problem - disagreement doesn't imply there are no correct answers
• Objections to cultural relativism: 1) An individual cannot object about the norms of their society 2) If society can't be wrong, then it can't learn from its mistakes 3) Cultural relativism is self-contradictory
• Moral subjectivism


  The view that moral judgments are about the individual's own feelings, not about objective moral facts or societal approval
• Moral subjectivists believe that "good" means "I like this" rather than "socially approved"
• Moral subjectivists see moral freedom as part of the process of growing up and forming one's own values, rather than just conforming to societal norms
• Moral subjectivists would follow their own feelings about moral issues rather than just deferring to societal approval or disapproval
• Value judgments


  About how I feel, not about how society feels. Describe my own emotions.
• Moral freedom


  Part of the process of growing up. Adults should think things out and form their own values, not just parrot the values they were taught.
• Cultural relativism (CR)


  Makes us conform to society instead of letting us think for ourselves and form our own values.
• Subjectivism (SB)


  Tells me to follow my feelings. "X is good" means "I like X".
• Heavy drinking may be socially approved, but it often leads to negative consequences that I don't like.</b>
• "I like it - it's good"

  The two phrases mean the same thing in subjectivism.
• Moral truths are relative to the individual in subjectivism. If I like X but you don't, then "X is good" is true for me but false for you.</b>
• Objectivity of values is an illusion. Goodness is not an objective property of things, it is our subjective reaction.</b>
• Key point of subjectivism

  Pick your moral principles by following your feelings.
• Consequence of subjectivism: Atrocities committed by dictators like Hitler, Stalin, Mao, Leopold II, and Pol Pot are not wrong.</b>
• Objections to subjectivism: "No man is an island", "Who is wrong if everybody is right?", "Bad actions are not bad in the end".</b>
• Utilitarianism


  The proper aim of morality is to promote happiness and diminish misery.
• Golden rule


  Concern about the consequences of our actions on others, trying to make others happier and prevent their misery.
• Applying utilitarianism directly


  Figure out options

  2. Estimate pleasure and pain consequences of each option

  3. Decide which option brings about the greatest balance of pleasure over pain
• Difficulty in applying utilitarianism: Estimating future consequences, and "adding up" benefits and harms when we can't put precise numerical values on pleasure and pain.
• Consequentialism (teleology)


  We ought to do whatever maximizes good consequences, it doesn't matter what kind of thing we do
• Classical/Act Utilitarianism


  We ought always to do whatever brings about the greatest balance of pleasure over pain for everyone affected by our action
• Ethical dilemma


  • Presiding judge has evidence to exonerate a convicted criminal, but also evidence of the criminal's guilt of another crime. Should the judge reveal the exonerating evidence?
• Happiness


  Intended pleasure and the absence of pain
• Unhappiness


  Pain and the privation of pleasure