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    • What is the modern cell theory?
      -cell contains hereditary info that can be passed on
      -all cells are comprised of some chemical mix
      -cells carry out all basic chemical and physiological processes within themselves
      -cellular activity depends on subcellular structures
    • What is the basic cell theory?
      -all organisms are composed of cells
      -cell is the basic unit of life
      -cells are produced by division of preexisting cells
    • why are we made up individual cells?
      -efficiency: SA to Volume ratio
      -specialisation: numerous small cells allow for different cells to have different functions
    • What is the function of the cell (plasma) membrane?

      separates living cells from non-living surroundings
      selective permeability
      critical for cell-cell communication
      incorporates receptors, where a single signal can lead to many downstream alterations in behavior
    • What are cilia?
      protrusions from the cell surface
      two forms: motile and non-motile
    • What are flagella?
      longer and fewer than cilia
      involved in cell movement
      used for movement of materials along the outside of the cell
    • What cellular reactions occur in the cytoplasm?
      glycolysis
      gluconeogenesis
      biosynthesis of sugars, fatty acids and amino acids
      RNA modification
      Protein synthesis
    • What are the functions of the mitocondria?
      site of cellular respiration: Krebs cycle for production of ATP (cellular metabolism)
      cell differentiation
      cell death
      controls cell cycle and growth
    • Where did mitochondria originate from?
      free living organism living inside another cells due to endosymbiosis
    • Where is DNA located?
      the nucleus
      the mitocondria
    • What occurs if you have a defect in mitochondria?
      minor: exercise intolerance
      serious: retinal ganglion cell degeneration
    • What are the two types of endolasmic reticulum?
      Rough and smooth
    • What is the function of the rough ER?
      -translation of mRNA into proteins by ribosomal complexes
      -production and processing of specific proteins
    • What is the function of the smooth ER?

      -no ribosomes
      -site of carbohydrate metabolism: ion regulation,synthesis and metabolism of steroids and lipids,some drug detoxification
    • Name some disorders of the endoplasmic reticulum?

      cerebral ischaemia
      sleep apnea
      Alzheimer's
      multiple sclerosis
      ayotrophic lateral sclerosis
      prion disease
    • What is the function of the Golgi?

      cell products are sentto Golgi after RER and SER
      sorts, modifies and packages products and sends them in and out of the cell
    • What is the function of a vacuole?
      cellular space for water and storage
    • What is the function of a lysosome?
      vesicle produced by the Golgi, contains digestive enzymes
    • What is the function of a peroxisome?
      bud off from the ER including a host of toxins
      break down long chain fatty acids
    • What is found within the nucleus?
      the majority of cellular DNA
      DNA wrapped around histones= chromatin
      in nondividing cells chromatinis not formed
    • What is heterochromatin?
      tightly packed DNA
      transcriptionally inactive
    • What is euchromatin?
      loose open chromatin
      active transcription (gene expression)
    • where does transcription occur?
      in the nucleus
    • where does translation occur?
      at the ribososome
    • What is totipotency?
      embryonic cells within the first few divisions
      zygote
    • What is pluripotency?
      capable of giving rise to different cell types
      blastocyst
    • What is multipotency?
      can develop into more than 1 type of cell but are more limited than pluripotent
      gastrula
    • What is nullipotency?
      can no longer differentiate
      ectoderm
    • What are transcription factors?

      proteins that directly regulateand drive gene expression by interacting with regulatory region of a gene- a promoter
    • What are master regulators?
      switches on a cascade of genes encoding other transcription factors
      examples: SRY and eyeless (ey)
    • What are the three regions of spermatozoa?
      head- acrosome and nucleus
      midpiece- mitochondria
      tail- flagellum
    • What are some forms of macroscale imaging?
      ultrasound
      optical projection tomography (OPT)
    • What is resolution
      the ability to distinguish 2 small and closely spaced objects as separate entities
    • what is the diffraction limit?
      200nm
    • Why is confocal microscopy better than light microscopy?
      higher contrast
      resolution in X, Y and Z planes
      takes image within a single plain
      far sharper
      use different fluorescent stains
      Can make 3D wholemount images
    • What is electron microscopy?
      suborganelle structures
      resolution is greater than light microscopes
      electrons have a shorter wavelength than light
      resolution of up to 50pm
    • What are the main steps of preparing a specimen for analysis?
      1. Fixation: cross link proteins and stabilise cell structure
      2. Embedding : wax/resin support for tissue before sectioning
      3. sectioning: production of thin slices (5-10 microns)
      4. Mounting:mounted on a glass slide
      5. Clearing and rehydration: cleared with xylene and rehydrated with decreasing levels of alcohols
      6. Staining: immunobased
      7. Dehydration and clearing: for better resolution
      8. Final mounting: covered with coverslip for protection
    • What are the different stains used to visualise cells?
      haemotoxylin- nucleus
      eosin- cytoplasm
      alcian blue- connective tissues
    • What is immunofluorescence?
      uses properties of antibody-antigen recognition
      detect location of proteins and other cell molecules
      direct and indirect detection
      antibodies are raised against molecule of interest and can be polyclonal (easy to produce and less specific) or monoclonal (difficult to produce and more specific)
    • What is direct detection?
      -antibody is tagged with an enzyme (light microscopy)
      -is detected by adding substrate with a fluorescent marker (fluoro microscopy)
      -
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