Gender

• Sex


  Biological characteristics of a person (genes, chromosomes; anatomy) that determine whether they are male or female and allow them to reproduce.

  
• Sex is what?


  Innate.
• Gender is what?


  Learned and is more 'fluid'.
• What is Gender Dysphoria?

  When a person' biological sex doesnt match how they feel (their gender).
• What happens if one's sex doesn't match their gender?

  They may decide to have gender reassignment surgery, becoming transgender, to bring their sexual identity with their gender identity.
• Gender


  Psychological and cultural differences between males and females, including attitudes, behaviours and social roles.
• Sex-role stereotype


  A set of expectations or appropriate behaviour for males and females in a society. These expectations aresomehow communicated throughout society and may be reinforced by parents, peers, the media; school etc.
• Androgyny


  Displaying a balance of masculine and feminine characteristics in one personality.
• BEM sex role inventory


  Systematic attempt to measure androgyny using a scale of 60 traits to produce scores on masculinity-femininity and androgynous-undifferentiated.

  
• What can you score on the BEM sex role inventory?

  High M & low F, high F & low M, high both (androgyny); low both.
• Evaluate BEM sex role inventory.

  Lacks temporal validity and limited validity as a measure in all societies and all times as it was done in 1970s, quantitative self-report method - social desirability bias and relies on individual's insight into their personality, based on what American students assessed as desirable traits for men and women - culturally specific; may not be able to generalise findings. Gender is so complex that it can't be reduced to a single score. Produced similar results when tested on over 1000 students with the same sample = good test-retest reliability. Quantitative data is easier to analyse and draw comparisons = more objective.

  
• An issue with the Bem Sex Role Inventory (BSRI) is that it is subject to cultural and historical bias. This is because...


  This is because it was done in 1970s America and was based on the American university students of the day thought were desirable traits for males and females. This means that the stereotypical ideas of 'masculinity' and 'femininity' are outdated as times have changed. This also means that the BSRI lacks temporal validity and it cannot be generalised across all cultures and societies.
• A strength of the Bem Sex-Role Inventory (BSRI) is that the scale appears to be valid and reliable. This is because...


  This is because the scale was developed by asking 50 male and 50 female judges to rate 200 traits in terms of how desirable they were for males and females. The traits with the highest scores in each category became the 20 masculine and 20 feminine traits on the scale. The BSRI was then piloted with over 1000 students and the results broadly corresponded the the participants' descriptions of their gender identity. This suggests that the BSRI has a degree of validity. A follow-up study involving a smaller sample of the same students revealed similar scores when the students were tested a month earlier, suggesting that the BSRI has high test-retest reliability.
• An issue with the BSRI is that it oversimplifies a complex concept. It has been suggested that gender identity is too complex to be reduced to a single score.

  
  

  Now do the rest.

  Alternatives to the BSRI have been developed, like the Personal Attribute Questionnaire (PAQ), which replaces Bem's masculinity-femininity dimension with one that measures instrumentality and expressivity. However, the PAQ is still based on the idea that gender can be quantified. Some researchers have claimed that gender identity is a much more global concept than is suggested by these scales. This means that, to understand gender identity more fully, the broader issues should be considered.
• Chromosomes


  23 pairs in humans containing genetic information, 23rd pair determine biological sex: XX for female XY for male.
• Hormone


  Hormones are chemical substances produced in the body that control and regulate the activity of certain cells or organs.
• Gender is governed by what?

  
  

  a) Chromosomes.

  b) Hormones

  Hormones.
• Male hormones are also known as what?

  Androgens
• Women typically produce more what than men?

  Oxytocin.
• What is the role of testosterone in gender development?

  Testosterone is a male hormone that controls the development of male sex organs (which begins at 8 weeks of foetal development) and is produced in the testes (and small amounts in the ovaries). Associated with aggression.
• What is the role of oestrogen in gender development?

  Oestrogen determines female sex characteristics and menstruation. Causes some women heightened emotionality and irritability.
• Testosterone


  A hormone produced mainly in the male testes (smaller amounts in the female ovaries).
• Oestrogen


  Primary female hormone important in the development of the menstrual cycle and reproductive system.
• What is the role of oxytocin?

  Stimulates lactation, making it possible for Mums to breastfeed their children. Reduces hormone cortisol and facilitates bonding. Produced in massive quantities before labour and after childbirth.
• Outline the results of the David Reimer case study.

  David's chromosomes outweighed the attempts to socialise him as a girl. This shows that biology has a great influence on gender.

  
• Evaluate the role of chromosomes in gender development.

  
  

  Point: The evidence supports the role of chromosomes and hormones.


  The determining influence of chromosomes on gender identity development is supported by the case of David Riemer. In relation to sex chromosomes, Dabbs et al (1995) found, in a prison population, that offenders with the highest testosterone levels were more likely to have committed more violent and/or sexually motivated crimes. Van Goozen et al studied transgender people who were undergoing hormone treatment and being injected with hormones of the opposite sex. Transgender women showed decreases in aggression and visuo-spatial skills whilst transgender men showed the opposite. This research seems to suggest that sex hormones do exert some influence on gender-related behaviours.
• The is research to suggest that the role of sex chromosomes and hormones in sex and gender is insignificant. In a double blind study conducted by Tricker et al (1996), ...


  In a double blind study conducted by Tricker et al (1996), 43 males were given either a weekly injection of testosterone or a placebo. No significant differences in aggression were found after the 10-week period between the two groups. Similarly, one researcher demonstrated that sex hormones had no consistent effect on gender-related behaviour. It is also the case that many studies of biological factors in gender involve small samples of unusual people, or are conducted on animals, limiting the extent to which meaningful generalisations are made. This means that the role of sex chromosomes and hormones in sex and gender is undermined by evidence.
• A limitation of research into the role of hormones in sex in gender is that there tends to be an overemphasis on nature. If gender identity is purely down to...


  If gender identity is purely down to biology then one would expect to find many differences in male and female behaviour than there are. In a major review of this area, it was found that there are significantly more differences in behaviour within the sexes than between them. Alternative explanations like social learning theory would point to the importance of social context in the learning of our gender identity. The influence of social norms would explain cross-cultural differences in gender-role behaviour and the changes in gender roles over time.
• A limitation of research into the role of hormones in sex in gender is that it oversimplifies a complex concept. Biological accounts that reduce gender to a ...


  Biological accounts that reduce gender to a chromosomal and hormonal level have been accused of ignoring alternative explanations of gender development. The cognitive approach would highlight the changing thought processes. Even though these may happen through the maturation of the developing brain, they aren't adequately explained by the biological model. This is therefore a limitation into research into the role of hormones in sex in gender.
• Oxytocin


  The 'love' hormone produced during labour and stimulates lactation.
• Kholberg's gender identity


  Around age 2. Child recognises that they are a boy or a girl but that knowledge is fragile like a label. Sometimes don't realise that boys become men etc. Based on appearance.
• Kholberg's gender stability


  Around age 4. Own gender is fixed over time but not necessarily relate to others and across situations. They will be male or female when they are older. Appearance is still a factor.
• Kholberg's gender constancy/consistency.


  Around age 6 or 7. Own gender and other people's gender is consistent over time and situations. They go on to seek role models; imitate and internalise their behaviours.

  
• Kholberg's gender constancy/consistency and imitation of role models.


  Once children achieve gender constancy, they seek out gender-appropriate role models to identify with and imitate. Connects with SLT ideas - argues that these processes can occur at any age rather than at 6 years old. Once child has fully developed and internalised the concept of gender at constantly stage, they embark on an active search evidence to support that concept.

  
• Outline the method, results and the conclusion of Slay and Frey's 1975 study into the development of children's understanding of gender in relation to the attention they give to same-sex models.

  Children between the ages Of two and five were divided into high and low gender constancy great and were shown by silent film. Two adult models, one male and one female, were carrying out stereotyped and gender role activity like baking or changing a wheel. The screen was split. The children watched both films and I am direction of those where recorded it to assess which film tax. They found that the child that had reached high levels of gender consistency spelt spent more time watching same-sex model is then those with the most levels of gender constancy. Supporting Kohlberg's claims that children pay attention to same-sex models after stage of scene has been reached.
• Gender schema


  Organised set of beliefs and expectations about gender which guides gender-appropriate behaviour.
• Schema


  Cognitive framework which helps us to organise and interpret information. They focus on things which help us to confirm our pre-existing ideas or beliefs and often contribute to stereotypes.
• Gender identity


  Only gender identity is needed for the development of gender schema. This contrasts with Kohlberg's view that this process only begins after they have reached gender constancy.
• Schema direct behaviour and self-understanding.


  Schema are likely to be formed around stereotypes and these direct experience as well as the child's understanding of itself , e.g. 'I am a boy so I play with cars and wear trousers'. Children misremember or disregard information that does not fit with their schema.
• Who developed gender schema theory?

  Carol Martin and Charles Halverson.