AS Research Methods

• Aim

  The purpose of a piece of research
• Hypothesis

  The prediction of what the results will be
• Types of hypothesis

  • Directional
  • Non-directional
• Directional hypothesis is used when previous research indicates what the results will be
• Non-directional hypothesis is used when there is no previous research or previous research is contradictory
• Independent variable (IV)

  The variable manipulated or changed by the researcher
• Dependent variable (DV)


  The result, which should be affected by the change in IV
• IVs and DVs must be operationalised - put into a measurable form
• Extraneous variables are variables other than the IV which may have an effect on the DV if not controlled for
• Confounding variables are variables other than the IV that have (or almost certainly have) had an effect on the DV
• Demand characteristics

  Clues which participants respond to when in an experimental situation, in which they try to guess the aim or intended outcome of a study and therefore change their behaviour accordingly
• Investigator effects

  Unwanted influences that the investigator/experimenter communicates to the participants which affects their behaviour
• Randomisation

  A way of controlling for the effects of extraneous/confounding variables by allocating participants to tasks, selecting samples of participants, etc. left to chance as far as possible
• Standardisation

  Keeping the experience of an experiment (as far as possible) identical for every participant, for example using standardised instructions
• Single-blind


  When the participant does not know the aim of the study
• Double-blind

  When the investigator who deals with the participants also does not know the aim of the study
• Control group

  A group used for comparison, often when testing the effects of a drug
• Population

  The target group of people the researcher is studying
• Sample


  The group of people selected to take part in the study, drawn from the target population
• Sampling techniques

  • Random
  • Systematic
  • Stratified
  • Opportunity
  • Volunteer
• Pilot study

  A small-scale trial run of an experiment to check that the procedure works smoothly and that there are no misconceptions
• Experimental designs

  • Independent groups
  • Repeated measures
  • Matched pairs
• Independent groups design is appropriate when participants need to be different in each condition
• Repeated measures design involves one group of participants completing all conditions, but has order effects that can be addressed by counterbalancing
• Matched pairs design involves matching participants on relevant qualities, reducing participant variables but is the most time-consuming and expensive
• Observational Design

  • Structured: Researcher focuses on particular behaviours or actions
  • Unstructured: Researcher records everything that is going on
• Behavioural categories

  Process of making a target behaviour measurable, by breaking it down into observable components
• Event sampling

  Record is made of each example of a particular behaviour during the observation
• Time sampling

  Behaviours are recorded in a specific timeframe
• Inter-observer reliability

  Observers use the same behavioural categories and observe the same behaviours in a pilot study, comparing their findings
• Questionnaires

  Can be designed with open or closed questions, Likert scales, rating scales, and fixed-choice options
• Interviews

  Can be one-to-one or in groups, and can be unstructured, structured or semi-structured
• The interviewer aims to establish a rapport with the interviewee and make them feel comfortable