Gender and Beliefs

• Feminist view of religion

  - A source of ideology and social control

  - Monotheistic religions are patriarchal and a key way of maintaining women's subordination in society

  - Orthodox Judaism, Roman Catholic Church and Islam all restrict women from positions of power
• Radical feminism - Evidence of patriarchy in religious organisations


  → mainly male-dominated even though women participate more (e.g. Orthodox, Judaism forbid female priests/rabbis)

  
  

  → Armstrong (2003): female exclusion from priesthood is evidence of women's marginalisation
• Radical feminism - Evidence of patriarchy in places of worship


  → often segregate the sexes and marginalise women

  
  

  → women may be restricted from preaching or reading from sacred texts

  
  

  → taboos, e.g. on pregnancy and menstruation, may also prevent participation (Islam: menstruating women cannot touch the Quran)

  
  

  → Holm (2001) draws attention to how women are seen as polluting across a range or religions
• Radical feminism - Evidence of patriarchy in sacred texts


  → feature male gods, prophets etc.

  
  

  → written by men

  
  

  → focus on the exploits of men e.g. David and Goliath

  
  

  → stories often reflect anti-female stereotypes e.g. Madonna (Virgin Mary)
• Merlin Stone (1978) - study of orthodox Judaism


  - Men have 'seized control' of sacred texts as a way of maintaining control over women

  - In orthodox Judaism women cannot be rabbis, take any active role in the synagogue and they sit away from men

  - Religion is therefore a conservative force preventing change
• Simone de Beauvoir (1953) - The Second Sex


  - Argues that men have generally exercised control over religious beliefs; 'man enjoys the great advantage of having a God endorse the code he writes'

  - Religions make it appear that God supports the writings and ideas of men, making religion overtly patriarchal

  - Religion creates a false class consciousness
• AO3: Radical feminist view of religion


  - Quakers the most gender equal religion

  → they believe there is something of God in everybody, viewing everyone equally

  
  

  - Other Christian denominations e.g. Unitarian Church, have had female clergy for a long time

  
  

  - New Age beliefs are very female-centric
• Trzebiatowska and Bruce (2012) - Why are women more religious than men?

  - Focus primarily on Western Christianity

  
  

  - Men and women have traditionally occupied different social spheres

  
  

  - Men have been affected by the social changes that have led to secularisation before women have; religion has become 'feminised'
• Heelas and Woodhead - Women more attracted to New Age


  - 80% of participants of the holistic milieu were female

  
  

  - NA beliefs sell out of nature, the self and healing, all things associated with the female domain

  
  

  - Women's roles and caregivers/child bearers makes them more goal-orientated; they wish to be free (Bruce)
• Miller and Hoffman: Reasons for women's higher levels of religiosity - More risk-averse


  Women are less likely to take the risk of not being religious as they feel it would expose them to more dangers than if they were religious
• Miller and Hoffman: Reasons for women's higher levels of religiosity - Socialisation


  Women are socialised into the qualities favoured by religion, such as care, obedience and passivity

  
  

  Also more connected to core life experiences e.g. birth and death
• Miller and Hoffman: Reasons for women's higher levels of religiosity - Work (gender roles)


  Women are more likely to work part-time or be full-time carers, so they have more time to participate in religious activities
• Davie (2013) - The 'female' role


  - Women feel closer to God because they are more directly linked to the creation of life through childbirth

  
  

  - More involved with socialising children, which may involve transmitting religious values (expressive role)
• Trzebiatowska and Bruce (2012) - The 'female' role


  Women's role in caring for sick relatives, managing death and helping the bereaved puts them more in contact with the religious dimension
• Functionalists - Religion as compensation


  - Doubly-alienating for women because they don't have an occupational identity and may feel frustrated by their roles as wives/mothers

  
  

  - Religiosity becomes a form of compensation
• AO3: Problems with generalising


  - Women aren't a homogeneous group and gender roles are changing

  
  

  - Trzebiatowska & Bruce's research applies mainly to Western Christianity - other religions such as Islam and Judaism have stronger male participation rates