introdiuction to syste

• Systematics


  The study of various types of organisms, their diversities, and the relationships between them. Aims to recognize, describe, name, distinguish, relate and classify earth's organisms. Supplies evidence to evolutionary biology, ecology and other fields.
• Aims of systematics


  • To inventory the world's kinds of organisms (flora and fauna)
  • To provide a method for identification and communication
  • To produce a coherent and universal system of classification
  • To demonstrate the evolutionary implications of biodiversity
• Classical systematics


  Examines the phylogenetic relationships of organisms using morphological and anatomical methods as well as applying state of the art techniques like ultrastructural research.
• Molecular systematics


  Reads the information provided by the genetic material of the organisms and analyses it with the aid of electronic data processing. By constructing phylogenetic trees hypotheses can be established that describe the relationship and the lineage of organisms as well as character changes in the course of evolution.
• Systematics encompassed the following fields/study

  • Taxonomic characters
  • Morphological characters
  • Physiological characters
  • Ecological characters
  • Ethological characters
  • Geographical characters
• Taxonomic characters


  Specific traits or features of organisms that are used by taxonomists and systematists to classify and categorize them.
• Morphological characters


  Physical or structural traits of an organism that can be observed and measured, such as size, shape, color, and other anatomical details.
• Physiological characters


  All structures are the products of physiological processes and are thus physiological characters. By physiological characters one generally means growth constant, temperature tolerances and the various processes studied by comparative physiologist. These characters cannot be studied in preserved material.
• Ecological characters

  Habitat, food. Every species has its own niche in nature, differing from its nearest relatives in food preference, breeding season, tolerance to various physical factors, resistance to predators, competitors and pathogens and in other ecological factors.
• Ethological characters


  Traits or characteristics related to the behavior and social interactions of organisms. Ethology is the scientific study of animal behavior, and incorporating ethological characters into systematics provides valuable insights into the ecological roles, adaptations, and evolutionary relationships of species.
• Geographical characters


  The distribution of organisms across different geographical regions and the study of how these patterns can provide insights into their evolutionary relationships, speciation events, and ecological adaptations. Includes biogeography and endemism.
• Species concept


  The way in which scientists define and recognize species within the framework of biological classification.
• Speciation


  How a new kind of plant or animal species is created. Speciation occurs when a group within a species separates from other members of its species and develops its own unique characteristics.
• Allopatric species


  Species inhabiting different geographical areas. Occurs when a species separates into two separate groups that are isolated from one another, leading to geographic separation, limited gene flow, evolutionary divergence and reproductive isolation.
• Sympatric species


  Species normally occupying the same geographical area. A process of evolution where new species arise from a common ancestor within the same geographic area or habitat.
• Morphospecies


  Species identified based only on morphological similarity regardless of other factors.
• Biospecies


  Groups of actually or potentially interbreeding natural populations, which are reproductively isolated from other such groups.
• Sibling species


  Any of two or more related species that are morphologically nearly identical but are incapable of producing fertile hybrids.
• Familiarity with taxa


  According to Darwin (1850), "all organics are found to resemble each other in descending degree, so that they can be classed in groups under groups." All major groups of animals can individually be subdivided into smaller and smaller subgroups, such as vertebrates (birds and mammals).
• Systematic gradation


  Large number of animal and plant species are arranged in categories and taxa of different grades.
• Species


  Groups of actually or potentially interbreeding natural populations, which are reproductively isolated from other such groups.
• Genus


  A taxonomic category containing a single species or a monophyletic group of species, which are separated from other taxa of the same rank. Example: Genus Felis (golden cat, fishing cat, leopard).
• Family


  A taxonomic category containing one or more related genera and which is separated from other related families by important and characteristic differences.
• Classical Systematics - examines the phylogenetic relationship of organism using morphological and anatomical methods
• Molecular systematics- reads the information provided by the genetic material of the organisms
• Taxonomic characters - used by taxonomist and systematics to classify and categorized organisms
• taxonomic character - specific traits or features of organism
• Morphological - physical and structural trait of an organism. features such as size, shape, color, and other anatomical details
• general external morphology - the apparent features are easy to detect and observe.
• physiological charater : hard to define. constant growth, temperature tolerance. cannot studied in preserved material.
• ecological characters- habitat and food. species own niche in nature. food preference, breeding season, tolerance to various pysical factors, resistance to predators, competitors and pathogens and in oter ecological factors.
• ethological characters- courtship mechanism. characteristic re lated to the behavior and social interaction. scientific study of animal behavior.
• ethology- scientific study of animal behavior
• geographical character- general geographical pattern. Distribution of organisms across different geographical regions. provide insight into the organisms evolutionary relationship, speciation events and ecological adaptations.
• Domain - the highest rank in taxonomic ranking system
• Phylum - third level of classification
• Kingdom - second level of classification
• Darwin - according to him "all organics are found to resemble each other in descending degree, so that they can be classed in groups under groups.
• Nomenclature

  • The system of nomenclature adopted is the binomial system to indicate the specific name and trinomial for subspecific name
  • the name of teh genus is a single word and must begin with capital letter
  • Name must be in Latin form and usually printed in italic type.
  • Within a animal or plant kingdom no two general can have the same name.
  • if the generic name is changed the original authors name is written in parenthesis.
  • A name must be based on any part of an animal or a plant, or on any stage of an or organisms life history.