Exam

• 2) What role does duty play for Kant? What examples of duties does Kant offer?

  - Kant believes only actions performed from duty have moral worth.

  - He almost seems to suggest that the greater one's disinclination to act from duty, the greater the result of the moral worth of the action.

  
  

  - He gives examples of a seller. "It is the duty of the seller not to overcharge an inexperienced buyer"

  - Whether it be out of love for the buyer in which the seller wants everyone to have the same chance to purchase the product,

  - or whether is be law for the seller to charge everyone the same price for the product.
• What is Kants view towards utility?

  - He believes it does not govern our will, or play a apart of happiness.

  - Reason does this
• 4) What is Kant's position on happiness?

  - He believes happiness is always conditional.

  - One can gain happiness from fulfilling a wholly rational purpose, even if it runs counter to their own natural tendency to do something.

  
  

  - If the purpose of life were just to achieve happiness, then we would all seek pleasure and gratification and hope that these efforts would lead to happiness.

  - However, happiness is not totally within our power to achieve; to a large extent, happiness is a matter of luck.
• 5) What is the fundamental principle that Kant assumes at the beginning of section 2? Why does he introduce this principle?


  a) "The physical constitution of an organized being, a being adapted suitably to the purposes of life, contains no organ for any purpose that is not the fittest and best adapted for that purpose."
• 6) How does an action done from inclination differ from an action done from duty?


  - If one performs an action by inclination alone, then Kant implies the action has no moral worth.

  
  

  - Kant believes only actions performed from duty have moral worth. He almost seems to suggest that the greater one's disinclination to act from duty, the greater the result of the moral worth of the action.
• 7) How do intentions impact an action's moral worth?

  - When acting in conformity with duty, actions are always morally right, but do not always have moral worth.

  - When acting with inclination and pleasure, they can be right or wrong

  - When acting from duty, it has moral worth because it is the only way the action can have an objective.

  - When acting from inclination it has no moral worth because it is purely out of pleasure.
• 8) How do consequences impact moral worth of an action?

  - He believes consequences to do not play a part in determining an actions moral worth

  - It is WHY they did this action that determines moral worth

  - This notion of ethics, then, is not based on consequences, as is the doctrine for example in utilitarianism.

  - Kant recognizes the consequences of our decisions are not entirely within our control.
• 9) What are the examples of the merchant or tradesman intended to show?


  - a tradesman/merchant who adopts a policy of dealing fairly with his customers and not overcharging them;

  - he adopts this policy so not because it is the right thing to do but because he calculates that this policy will benefit his business in the long run. That is, his motive is self-interest.) So a person can perform a moral act (in the sense of an act that is morally required) from a non-moral motive.

  - In one sense he is "doing the right thing," or performing a moral act, since the price is correct. But since he did not intend to charge the correct price, this is really a different case from the merchant intending to charge the right price,

  - Kant would say he was acting unmorally
• 10) State and explain the categorical imperative.

  - A rule stating what ought to be done based upon pure reason alone and not contingent upon sensible desires. "I am never to act otherwise than to will that my maxim should become universal law."

  - Moral rules, then for Kant, have no exceptions. Killing is always wrong. Lying is always wrong. Kant recognizes the consequences of our decisions are not entirely within our control. Yet, for Kant, is there a problem with event-description in following pure practical reason? No two situations in our experience are exactly alike. How much of a difference would make a difference in the various applications of the Categorical Imperative? For example, should the imperative "I am never to take the life of another human being with malice aforethought" apply in the same manner in the circumstances of an unlawful situation, a lawful situation, self-defense, or wartime?
• For Aristotle what is the difference between intellectual and moral virtues? What sorts of intellectual virtues are there and how do people come to acquire them? How do people cultivate moral virtues?

  Intellectual Virtues: Excellence of Mind

  
  

  • Acquired by inheritance and education

  • Two Kinds:

  
  

  1. Philosophical Wisdom (understanding nature and reality)

  2. Practical Wisdom (knowing how to live life and achieve goals)

  
  

  Moral Virtues:

  
  

  • Examples: Courage, Modesty, justice, truthfulness, Friendliness

  • By repetition or practice.

  • Virtue is a habit, done naturally and easily.

  
  

  Intellectual virtues are about learning to be the best you can be by understanding the world and achieving goals.

  
  

  Moral Virtues are about doing the greater good and being a better person by learning from mistakes and doing what feels right naturally.
• What does Aristotle mean by "happiness" (eudaimonia)? What material goods or circumstances are also necessary for someone's happiness? What is the function of a human being? What is the ultimate end toward which all our actions are aimed?

  Eudaimonia (happiness): Long term of well being.

  
  

  Necessary for Happiness: Health, wealth, and luck.

  
  

  The function of human being

  
  

  • the activity of contemplation (reasoning).

  • Imitates God, self sufficient done for it's own sake, and separate us from other beings.

  
  

  Happiness is our ultimate end toward which all our actions are aimed.

  
  

  ***Functional reasoning will help us reach it. (Stapler is good if it does the function of all staplers)
• What characteristics did Aristotle recognize as virtues? How are these sets of virtues generally characteristic of and valued by certain groups of people?

  Virtues

  
  

  1. Courage

  2. temperance

  3. liberality

  4. friendliness

  5. moderation

  6. pride

  
  

  mostly recognized by rich/wealthy and War Heros (See lecture notes for virtues). (incomplete)
• Why is a person who is painfully following his or her conscience not thereby virtuous, according to Aristotle? How would one imagine a saint or moral ideal being virtuous? According to Aristotle, would a moral ideal have to fight off temptation and struggle to be good?


  A: Because they are having to work at it. Work hard enough it becomes second nature. Saints are inherently good, no second guessing =v irtuous. No, a moral idea would not have to fight off temptation and struggle to be good