Cog exam outline

• Attention


  The mental process whereby you actively focus on a particular stimulus or internal mental event
• Attention can be fallible and includes limited mental resources making it selective
• The brain cannot maintain attention over long periods to process the constant influx of information from the environment (Huang et al., 2013)
• Modes of attention


  • Bottom up- passive mode, alertness or arousal, reflective
  • Top-down → active mode, selective attention utilises the prefrontal cortex
• Types of attention


  • Focused(selective)
  • Sustained
  • Divided attention
• Attentional failures are rooted in issues with the processing as to whether the message is unattended and attended (Unsworth et al., 2012)
• Cognitive bottlenecking


  There are sensory modality restraints that only allow so much information to be processed at a time, how many tasks we can focus on at once and their parameters
• Early theories of attentional failures

  • Broadbent (1958) – items that are deemed as relevant are selected for further processing but selection is based on physical characteristics (proposing an all-or-nothing approach)
  • Triesmann (1964) – attenuation filter model as a revision of Broadbent that unattended information can be processed to a semantic (meaning) level with evidence suggesting that sometimes this may happen (not an all or nothing)
  • Deutsch & Deutsch (1963) – late selection whereas items are identified and selection is carried out on a basis of meaning → all information is processed and then categorized
• Theories of attentional failures

  • Theories of motivation, efficiency and capacity
  • Kahneman (1973) → capacity theory
  • Lavie (1995) → perceptual load theory
• Capacity theory


  Includes arousal, allocation policy and control mechanism. Within this theory, a combination of the three components needs to be there for attention to be diverted to a task. Noting that too much arousal or too little can be determinately. Arousal may compensate for the increased task difficulties to an extent.
• Perceptual load theory


  Ability to ignore irrelevant information is enhanced with high load →efficiency of selective attention. Early perceptual v. later executive stages of processing. Selection by filtering may be compromised if the tasks are too heavy in demand on the initial analysis stage of processing.
• Responses were shorter on trials containing small number of items than large ones, stating that increasing the number of non-target items would increase the load placed on perceptual encoding mechanisms
• If the load on a perceptual analysis is slight then filtering Is unnecessary and both targets and non-targets are processed. When the perceptual analysis is more demanding then full perceptual capacity is devoted to detecting targets and targets will not be processed
• Multiple resource theory


  Attentional resources are sourced from multiple resources. Divides resources into modalities, codes, stages and responses. Introduces a cognitive theory with a physiological model: Boer, 2000 - Describing the role of decision making, cost-benefit analysis within multi-tasking.
• Factors affecting divided attention

  • Task similarity
  • Task difficulty
  • Similarity of stimulus
  • Practice
• Explanation of attentional failures within various domains of attention can be explained by the capacity theory and perceptual load theory; as attention failures may be based around motivation, arousal and attentional efficiency
• Talking on the phone with a cell phone increases the probability of an accident in a manner comparable to driving will drunk (Strayer, 2006)
• Outline


  • Cognition behind divided attention and sustained attention
  • Attentional failures and road traffic accidents
  • Factors affecting attentional multi-tasking, alternative theories and neurodivergence
• Divided attention


  Ability to undertake several tasks at once; present at least 2 stimulus inputs and instruction to respond to all
• Schneier and Shiffrin (1977) found that attention can be divided but performance significantly improves over time
• Capacity theory


  (1) We have a general, limited, pool of attentional resources (2) The amount of attentional resources is dependent on task complexity (3) allocation of resources – if the pool of resources to process both tasks at the same time is not enough, we must reallocate = tasks may suffer (4) Allocation strategies – Enduring dispositions (things such as loud sounds) – stimuli that will always involuntarily capture our attention, Momentary – situational dispositions to allocate resources depending on the situation (conscious)
• Dual-task performances


  Behavioural procedure to which subjects are required to perform two different tasks simultaneously. Across tasks: the time range of one trial could differ significantly from the other. Dependent on the task similarity, complexity. To accommodate an increase in processing demands in dual tasks, the activation of additional brain areas in the performance would be necessary. Performance deficits → from limitations/malfunctioning of information processes.
• Poorer performance in one or both of the tasks (dual-task interference)
• Johnson et al (2007) used TMS to disrupt the functioning of the PFC = impaired ability to divide attention and perform dual task. PFC required in dual task
• Just et al., 2001 – Underadditivity. Participants performed two tasks using different cognitive processing resources and found the activation is less when performed together. Resulted in impairments on both tasks, decreased by 53% for language processing, mental rotation decreased by 29%
• Sustained attention


  Maintaining a consistent behavioural response to task-related stimuli during continuous or repetitive activity (Mackworth 1948)
• Esterman & Rothlein (2013) integrative model of attention


  Includes arousal, resource allocations and effort
• Attentional allocation


  During an optimal attentional state arousal will enable a sufficient degree of attentional resources. Cognitive control will determine the amount of resources that will be dedicated to the task (impacted by opportunity cost model)
• Arousal


  Optimal physiological arousal is critical for attention in LC. Low arousal states are associated with weak LC response to task relevant stimuli = inverted U shape. Effects impact via the LC-norepinephrenie neuromodulation of frontal parietal control regions.
• Opportunity cost model


  The subjective cost of cognitive control is a function of subjective value of the (current state of mental activity) relative to the value of (other possible activities i.e. mind wandering)
• Allocation → thought probe experiments. Subjective reports of the degree of attention to a task correlate with measures of performance (objective)
• Arousal → experimental manipulation of arousal with shock threat which enhanced sustained attention and reduced fluctuations (Esterman & Rothlein, 2013)
• Opportunity cost → experimental manipulations of motivation like performance based rewards can enhance sustained attention; keeping motivation constatnt during sustained attention decrease vigilance decrements
• Distracted state


  Low arousal = less cognitive resources to be allocated with low task performance even with primary dedication. High arousal/distracted = sufficient resources but attention will be selected
• Cognitive control cost


  A function of the subjective value of the current state of mental activity relative to the value of other possible activities (i.e. mind wandering)
• Esterman & Rothlein (2013)
• Evidence for cognitive control cost

  • Allocation: Subjective reports of attention to a task correlate with measures of performance (objective)
  • Arousal: Experimental manipulation of arousal with shock threat enhanced sustained attention and reduced fluctuations
  • Opportunity cost: Experimental manipulations of motivation like performance based rewards can enhance sustained attention; keeping motivation constant during sustained attention decreases vigilance decrements
• Distracted state

  • Low arousal = less cognitive resources to be allocated with low task performance even with primary dedication
  • High arousal/distracted = sufficient resources but attention will be selected
• Arousal variation not having a great effect (Bond et al., 2023)
• Subjective sleepiness was not related to sustained attention performance, and the inverted U was not found