methods in context

• Sampling methods


  • Random sampling
  • Stratified sampling
  • Snowball sampling
  • Systematic sampling
  • Quota sampling
• Random sampling


  • Researchers randomly choose participants from a population. All population members have an equal probability of being selected. This method tends to produce representative, unbiased samples.
• Stratified sampling


  • Obtaining a representative sample from a population that researchers have divided into relatively similar subpopulations. Researchers use stratified sampling to ensure specific subgroups are present in their sample.
• Snowball sampling


  • A non-probability sampling method where new units are recruited by other units to form part of the sample. Snowball sampling can be a useful way to conduct research about people with specific traits who might otherwise be difficult to identify.
• Systematic sampling


  • Researchers select members of the population at a regular interval (or k) determined in advance. If the population order is random or random-like (e.g., alphabetical), then this method will give you a representative sample that can be used to draw conclusions about your population of interest.
• Quota sampling

  • Relies on the non-random selection of a predetermined number or proportion of units. You first divide the population into mutually exclusive subgroups (called strata) and then recruit sample units until you reach your quota. These units share specific characteristics, determined by you prior to forming your strata.
• Stages of research

  • Identify problem
  • Evaluate the literature
  • Create hypothesis
  • Research design
  • Describe population
  • Data collection
  • Data analysis
  • Report writing
• Operationalizing

  Turning abstract ideas into a measurable form
• Practical issues


  • Time
  • Cost
  • Access
  • Opportunity
  • Funding
  • Safety
  • Personal characteristics of the researcher
• Ethical issues

  • Informed consent
  • Anonymity
  • Confidentiality
  • Privacy
  • Protection from harm
  • Right to withdraw
  • Sensitive topics
  • Deception of participants
  • Storage of personal data
• Theoretical issues

  • Validity
  • Reliability
  • Representativeness
  • Hawthorne effect
  • Social desirability
• Quantitative and qualitative methods

  • Experiments
  • Questionnaires
  • Interviews
  • Observations
  • Secondary sources
• Lab experiments

  • Take place in controlled environments e.g. Bandura's Bobo doll experiment (ecological validity, operationalising concepts, independent, dependent, extraneous variables, hypothesis, Hawthorne effect)
• Field experiments

  • Take place in real-life settings e.g. Rosenthal and Jacobs (study showed that children's performance was enhanced if teachers were led to expect enhanced performance from children. By the same token, if teachers were led to expect lower performance from children, then the children's performance would be diminished.)
• Questionnaire types

  • Written questionnaires
  • Self-completion questionnaires
  • Mailed/online questionnaires
  • Interviewer-present questionnaires
• Interview types

  • Structured interview
  • Unstructured interview
  • Semi-structured interview
  • Group interview
• Observation types


  • Participant
  • Non-participant
  • Overt
  • Covert
• Secondary sources

  • Official statistics
  • Personal documents
  • Public documents
  • Historical documents
  • Content analysis
• Practical, ethical and theoretical issues affecting choice of topic

  • Influence of funding bodies
  • Purpose of research
  • Theoretical perspective
  • Methodological perspective (researcher values, social issues, value freedom, value-laden/objectivity, structural theories, social action theories, conflict, consensus)