igcse history revision (usa)

• Background of Cold War


  - Soviet troops remained in liberated countries after WW2, looked like trying to take over Europe

  - Many Americans feared Eastern Europe immigrants try to convert USA to communist

  - USA believed SU wanted world domination

  - SU developed own atomic bomb in 1949

  - SU influenced communism in other countries:

  (E.g. Korean war, China, Eastern Europe, communist uprising in greece)
• What was the Truman Doctrine (aid in resisting)

  - Truman Doctrine promised HELP for countries RESISTING TAKEOVER by other countries

  - To prevent more countries from becoming communist
• What was the Marshall Plan (money for recover ww2)


  - Marshall plan provided financial aid to European countries suffering economic problems after WW2

  - Ineffective - Stalin did not allow countries to accept aid after seeing USA attempting to extend influence
• What was the Berlin Crisis

  - Germany and its capital Berlin split into different zones controlled by UK, France, USA, SU

  - UK, France and USA combined zones as West Germany, and began recovering from war

  - Stalin cut off all road, rail and canal supply lines to West Berlin in 1948 to make Berlin reliant on SU

  - Western allies sent supplies using aircraft - could not shoot down planes as would start war

  - Reopened supply lines in 1949
• Reasons for Red Scare

  1) Role of FBI

  - Director was anti-communist

  - Arrested & questioned suspected communist

  - Helped create evidence of suspected spies

  - Federal Loyalty Boards - investigated government employees, Truman allowed removal of disloyal employees

  - 3000 people lost their jobs, 3 mill investigated

  
  

  
  

  2) HUAC

  - MONITORED EXTREME GROUPS suspected of 'Un-American' activities

  - Held PUBLIC HEARINGS on threats of communism to America

  - FBI provided intelligence to HUAC, who then questioned and trialed the suspects

  
  

  
  

  3) McCarthyism

  - Claimed to have list of 205 members of Communists in US state department

  - Increased hysteria - thousands of Americans reported as suspects, trade unions = communist, stopped talking about politics, little politicians campaign for left wing
• Impact of Red Scare

  1) Loss of jobs

  - 3 million government workers investigated by FLB, 3000 forced to fired or forced to resign

  - Cities & businesses investigated thousands of employees of being communist sympathisers - lost their jobs

  
  

  2) Damaged reputations

  - HOLLYWOOD TEN : 19 Hollywood directors, writers and producers named communist, where 10 refused to respond, jailed for 1 year for contempt and blacklisted

  
  

  - HISS CASE : Hiss was member of State Department and adviser for President Roosevelt, named as a communist, sentenced for 5 years in prison for denying being communist in court

  
  

  - ROSENBERG CASE : Klaus Fuchs arrested for helping SU build atomic bomb, named David Greenglass as other spies, Greenglass dragged sister and her husband as communists too, both sentenced to death

  
  

  
  

  3) Hysteria

  - Thousands of ordinary Americans reported suspected communists to FBI

  - Trade unions seen as communist

  - Stopped talking about politics - fear of being accused

  - Less people campaigned for left wing policies - not elected

  - Damaged international reputation - more people became anti-American
• McCarthyism (Who was McCarthy, techniques used)

  - List of 205 Communist working in government

  - Supported by republicans to ATTACK DEMOCRATS - due to his popularity

  - Used BULLYING and AGGRESSIVE QUESTIONING, especially famous ones to gain publicity - accused opponents of being 'soft on communism'

  - Got evidence from FBI, faked evidence often

  - Very popular - millions watched his television appearances
• Reasons for McCarthy's downfall (during army hearing)

  - Televised Army-McCarthy hearing - public saw McCarthy's bullying tactics, shocked

  - Army found and sent evidence of McCarthy's corruption to news reporters

  - Media - produced anti McCarthy articles and programmes

  - Nobody ever found guilty for spying for McCarthy

  - Senate punished McCarthy for improper conduct
• Features of Brown vs Topeka trial (1951-52)


  - Linda's parents applied her for all white school in Topeka, as current school too far

  - Got rejected, encouraged by NACCP to take case to local court -> Supreme Court

  - Argued that segregating schools impacted psychological health of children

  - Supreme Court ruled school segregation unconstitutional in 1954, schools began desegregating
• Impacts of Brown vs Topeka Trial

  Pro

  1) Increased AWARENESS of AA civil rights

  2) Supreme court FINALLY TAKING ACTION - willing to support AA, hope for civil right campaigners

  
  

  Cons

  1) Integration of schools was slow

  2) Difficult process for AA - angered racists, education suffered, Deep South faced extreme backlash from racists

  3) Loss of jobs - AA teachers from good Black schools lost job

  4) WHITE FLIGHT - White left areas with Black residents
• Klu Klux Klan


  - Organised protests & petitions to resist integration from B vs.T in South

  - Targeted civil rights protestors

  - Used violence - beating, lynching, shootings (e.g. bombed as angry of Montgomery Bus Boycott)
• Features of Emmett Till's death (1955)


  - Emmett Till visited cousins in South, accused of flirting with a shop owner (Carolyn Bryant), was lynched by her husband (Bryant) and his half brother (Milam)

  - Emmett's mother wanted open casket funeral - show everyone cruelty towards Emmett

  - Bryant and Milam put on trial & found not guilty, later confessed to crime but not trialed as cannot be trialed twice
• Impact of Emmett Till's death

  1) Increased awareness - White people saw extreme racism in South

  2) Motivated more AA to take action - Black kids same age as Emmett identified with him & joined Civil Rights protests in 1960
• Features of Montgomery Bus Boycott

  - Used Rosa Parks's case to start

  - Refused to stand up & give set to white men, got arrested

  - Highly respectable figure, already involved in civil rights

  - Boycotted buses on day of Rosa's trial - 90% of AA stopped using buses, huge success

  - MIA set up & sent demands to stop boycott - refused

  - Boycott continued - financially harmed bus companies

  - Used carpooling and was supported by churches - raised money for carpools and provided meeting places

  - Supreme Court ruled desegregation of buses in 1956
• Impacts of Montgomery Bus Boycott

  Pros:

  1) Very successful - seating now first come system, bus drivers no longer told AA to move for whites

  2) Inspired more civil rights campaigns - gained support and attracted publicity

  3) More lasting impact - MLK's work became popular, increased awareness and attracted more supporters

  
  

  Cons:

  1) Ineffective - change only in small area, other facilities still segregated

  2) Increased racist group members & violence

  - KKK drove around to intimidate and attack AA

  - Integrated bus passengers sniped

  - Bombing of AA churches and civil rights leaders home
• Features of Civil Right Act 1957 (1 - first bill overtime, investigate how aa can't vote, charge states)

  1) A bill was introduced by Eisenhower to continue Truman's civil rights support rejected - weakened bill later passed

  - Met with Southern resistance

  - Dixiecrat filibustered for 24 hours so bill took overtime and rejected

  
  

  2) Eisenhower signed Civil Rights Act in 1957

  - 'US commission on Civil Rights' set up - investigated how AA were prevented from voting

  - Allowed federal courts to prosecute States that tried preventing people from voting
• Impact of Civil Rights Act 1957 (1) (act was weakened due to filibuster & rejection, key first step from fed g)


  Pros:

  1) Important first step - Federal government finally tried to improve civil rights after 82 years

  
  

  2) Motivated activists - many unsatisfied with weakened Act, more determined for change

  
  

  3) Ineffectiveness led to another Civil Rights Act 1960 - Federal inspections introduced, penalty for states who tried preventing people from voting

  
  

  Cons:

  1) Ineffective

  - Little support from Juries - states found 'not guilty' when prosecuted by Federal Courts

  - Little improvement in civil rights

  - Both Acts only improved AA voting by 3%
• Features of Little Rock 1957


  - White School in Little Rock forced to integrate - 9 students joined school

  - Integration disliked by state and citizens

  - Sent state troops to stop AA students from entering

  - Protested against - angry white people shouted at students on first day, riots started when police accompanied students

  - Extreme racism broadcasted worldwide - president interfere

  - 1,200 Fed troops sent to protect AA students

  - AA finally began lessons after 3 weeks

  - Harassment continued

  - Families harassed and violence used

  - Governor closed down high schools to stop integration - forced to reopen by Supreme Court

  - Only significant change in 1970
• Impact of Little Rock 1957

  1) Gained publicity

  - Kennedy had to directly intervene - enforce Supreme Court decision for high schools to intergrate

  - Reputation damaged - looked stupid for criticising civil rights of other countries

  - Millions of US people saw extreme racism in South

  
  

  2) Other AA students struggled

  - AA students insulted or ignored at school

  - Education suffered

  - Only significant change in school integration in 1970
• Features of MLK


  - Became popular due to background

  - Well EDUCATED and spoken

  - Focused on non-violent protest - inspired by Ghandi

  - Worked with people of ALL RACES

  - Role as BAPTIST MINISTER - emphasised christian values

  - Respected US government system - gained more support

  
  

  - Made effective speeches

  - Won support of white people and politicians

  - Persuaded AA and others to join civil rights protests
• Features of Sit-ins 1960 (awareness)

  - Started by 4 African American college students, who sat at white-only lunch counter, refused to leave and sat patiently

  - Came back again, each time with more students

  - Sit-ins spread across North Carolina and later in South

  - Over 70,000 participated in sit-ins

  
  

  - Endured abuse & attack from white segregationists - drinks and food thrown at them

  - Thousands arrested - led to using 'jail not bail' tactic to make jails too overcrowded

  - Gained widespread media attention
• Impact/ significance of Sit-ins

  1) Very successful

  - Businesses affected - sold less lunches and not enough seats for white customers

  - Began DESEGREGATING eating facilities - over 120 towns by end of 1960

  
  

  2) Gained media attention

  - Attracted SYMPATHY seeing young AA attacked and not fighting back

  - EISENHOWER STATEMENT showed concern

  
  

  3) Huge number of participants

  - WHITE people also JOINED in protesting

  - Established student civil rights organisation (SNCC)
• Features of Freedom Riders 1961

  - Planned to show rulings of desegregation of interstate transport not always followed

  - Wanted to generate VIOLENT REACTION for huge PUBLICITY and Federal government to intervene

  
  

  First bus:

  - Arrived at Anniston (Alabama), met with angry crowd led by KKK leader

  - Windows and sides SMASHED, tyres damaged

  - Police came to escort bus to outskirt of city then left, no one arrested

  - Mob followed - tried entering and toppling over bus, FIREBOMB thrown in, held door shut bus caught on fire

  - Left to avoid explosion - allowed passengers to escape while being attacked

  - Passengers taken back to airport by car

  
  

  Second bus:

  - Dragged out of bus and beaten up

  - Continued on to Montgomery - met with Klansmen and beaten

  - Police did not interfere
• Features of Meredith Case 1961


  - James Meredith was a AA, applied for Mississippi University but rejected

  - Took case to court with NAACP support - Supreme Court ordered university to accept him but still refused

  - State passed law that denied admission of anyone that convicted "felony offense" - Meredith convicted so automatically suspended

  
  

  - Kennedy intervened and ordered those obstructing law to stop

  - Riots began - people who opposed Meredith joined protests

  - Federal officials sent to escort Meredith to register - attacked and riot from protestors followed, 300 people injured

  - Over 2,000 Federal troops sent to stop rioting

  
  

  - Meredith successfully register in university on Oct 1st

  - Guarded by 300 state troops
• Impact of Meredith Case

  1) Forced President to act - showed direct action would be taken to enforce Supreme Court rulings

  
  

  2) Less AA students prevented from integrated schools - still had difficult time
• Reasons and features of Birmingham Peace Marches 1963 (to end seg in birmingham, students trained and attacked)

  Reasons for choosing Birmingham:

  - Majority of still segregated

  - 45% of citizens were AA - potential for many protestors

  - Could bring publicity

  - Had active KKK attacks on AA - homes and businesses bombed

  
  

  Features

  - Project C launched to end segregation in Birmingham

  - Led by multiple groups, used sit-ins, boycotts & marches

  - Thousands of people participated, march followed with demonstrations - but most people got arrested

  - Started training children to protest - shocked people, 1000 children still arrested, attacked by dogs and fire hoses
• Impact of Birmingham Peace Marches

  1) Publicity gained - treatment to young protestors shown to world

  
  

  2) President sent negotiator to find agreement - talks between mayor and protest leaders

  
  

  3) Mayor agreed to desegregate - most shops & lunch counters desegregated, but other facilities remain segregated, violence continued

  
  

  4) Federal government took action - worked on civil rights bill to avoid similar situation and rioting
• Reasons and features of March on Washington 1963 (support new civil rights bill, famous one where mlk made speech)

  Reasons

  - Show support for new civil rights bill being considered

  - Force president to pass bill - with many people marching

  - Federal government based in Washington DC

  
  

  Features

  - 250,000 people marched peacefully for 'Jobs & Freedom'

  - 1000 extra police & 2000 National Guards on site - president had tried to persuade to call off march

  - Broadcasted worldwide

  - Members of civil rights group made speeches - MLK speech became famous
• Impact of March on Washington

  1) Large amount of support shown - many marchers

  
  

  2) Huge publicity - large size of protest, many celebrities present (e.g. Paul Newman, Bob Dylan)

  
  

  3) Pressured politicians to pass civil rights bill

  
  

  4) Established MLK as leader of movement

  
  

  5) JFK assassination - had agreed to passing bill, seemed unlikely now
• Features of Mississippi Freedom Summer Campaign (3 campaigners died)

  - Focused on Mississippi - low percentage of AA registered for voting, must pass difficult literacy test, those who passed beaten or threatened

  - Established new party (MFDP) - more than 80,000 members, 68 joined national democratic party, challenged Mississippi's all white democratic party

  
  

  - Sent volunteers to help projects- young white college students

  - Volunteers attacked by KKK - shot or beaten up, homes and churches bomb

  - 3 campaigners murdered after being released from prison
• Impact of Mississippi Freedom Summer Campaign

  1) Generated huge publicity - death of 3 campaigners, increased support

  
  

  2) Some progress made - MFDP established, 30 Freedom schools opened, voting problems recognised nationally

  
  

  3) Little improvement in voting for AA - scared to vote due to threats and attacks

  
  

  4) Caused divisions in civil rights group - some suspected huge publicity because 2 of murdered campaigners were white
• Features of Selma (Alabama) & Voting rights 1965 (2 marches, 1st march stopped by police with water hose and tear gas, congress passed voting rights act after)


  - Campaign targeted Selma (Alabama)

  - Low percentage of registered Black voters

  - Protests for 2 months unsuccessful - led to violent confrontations with police, 1 protestor murdered

  - SCLC decide to change tactics due to lack of success

  
  

  - First march to Montgomery

  - Stopped by police - attacked by state troop and police with e.g. tear gas, horses

  - Footage of attacked broadcasted worldwide

  
  

  - Second official march took place

  - Kennedy submitted voting rights bill to Congress & took control of Alabama's national guards

  - MLK led 25,000 people to state capitol of Montgom, escorted by troops from Alabama's national guards

  
  

  - Congress passed voting rights act in August
• Impact of Selma & Voting Rights

  - Many protestors began question non-violent method

  - Voting Rights Act passed
• Feature and impact of Voting Rights Act 1965 (passed through johnson's hard work, after k's death)


  Features

  - Johnson began persuading Congress to support voting bill during Selma marches

  - Bill became law in August 1965 - was approved by Congress in record time

  
  

  Impact

  - Increased no. of AA registered to vote in South

  - MORE IMPORTANT than civil rights act - AA elected as representatives at local or national level, issues faced considered by politicians
• Features and impact of Civil Rights Act 1964 (ended seg) (2)


  Features

  - President Johnson PERSUADE Congress to support Civil Rights bill - used shock of Kennedy's death and other methods

  - Dixiecrats attempted 54 day FILIBUSTER - FAILED, Johnson still had enough votes from Democrats and Republicans

  - SIGNED Civil Rights Act in 1964

  
  

  Impact

  - Ended legal segregation - many AA still not satisfied

  - Discrimination continued - many Southerners angered by extreme of act
• Causes and impact of Civil Rights Legislation


  - Little change before - Congress didn't believe civil rights laws needed, Southern senators opposed improving AA civil rights

  
  

  Causes

  1) Protests in civil rights movement - well led, attracted people, did not break law, targeted areas for extreme reaction, pressured federal government to act

  
  

  2) Attitudes of presidents - Kennedy and Johnson, Johnson's hardwork and skill got legislation (laws) passed

  
  

  3) More people in Congress wanted to do right thing

  
  

  4) Emergence of more radical activists - threaten use of violence if legislation not passed
• Features of Malcolm X

  1) Characteristics

  - Passionate & skilled speaker

  - Travelled around USA to convert people

  - Criticised civil rights movement - seen as dangerous and extreme by other activists

  
  

  2) Joined 'Nation of Islam' when in prison - became minister and later its representative

  - Nation of Islam - wanted segregation with same standard of facilities, pro Black Nationalism (have independent country)

  
  

  3) Changed views after seeing equality in Islam

  - Left after arguing with group's leader, who was jealous of X's popularity

  - Religious views became more traditional

  - Set up 'Organisation of Afro-American Unity' - promote closer link with African people

  
  

  4) Assassinated in 1965 by NOI members
• Impact of Malcolm X

  - Ideas inspired others - became basis of radical groups, e.g. Black Panther

  - Highlighted economic and social problems faced by AA
• Features of Black Power 1965

  1) Term first used by STOKELY CARMICHAEL - later became leader of SNCC, frustrated by slow progress, influenced by X

  
  

  2) Expressed anger of AA - lacked employment opportunities, worsening conditions in city ghettos, campaigned local issues

  
  

  3) Encouraged being proud of race & background - attracted poor young AA who wanted faster change, encouraged self defense

  
  

  4) White people rejected as members in SNCC
• Impact of Black Power

  1) Worried moderate civil rights groups & white Americans

  
  

  2) Blamed for more protesting - race riots, increased police action against all civil rights activists

  
  

  3) Continued Malcolm X's work - increased pride in background, self confidence in young AA

  
  

  4) Inspired more projects in improving living conditions - increase awareness on social and economic problems