anatomy exam 4

• The heart is found in which body cavity?

  mediastinum
• 2/3 of the heart is found on which side of the body?


  Left of the midline
• What is the outer covering of the heart?

  The outer covering of the heart is called the pericardium. The pericardium is a double-layered sac that surrounds and protects the heart. The outer layer of the pericardium is called the fibrous pericardium, which is composed of tough, fibrous connective tissue. The inner layer of the pericardium is called the serous pericardium, which is a thinner, more delicate layer composed of two layers itself: the parietal layer and the visceral layer. The space between the parietal and visceral layers of the serous pericardium is called the pericardial cavity, which contains a small amount of lubricating fluid that helps reduce friction as the heart beats.
• What is the layer called that is next to the heart?

  The layer that is next to the heart is called the myocardium. The myocardium is the thick, muscular middle layer of the heart wall and is responsible for the contraction of the heart that pumps blood throughout the body. The myocardium is composed of cardiac muscle cells that are densely packed together and arranged in a complex, three-dimensional network. The myocardium is supplied with blood by the coronary arteries, which branch off the aorta and wrap around the outside of the heart.
• What is the name of the layer that faces away from the heart?

  The layer that faces away from the heart is called the epicardium. The epicardium is the outermost layer of the heart wall and is also known as the visceral layer of the serous pericardium. It is composed of connective tissue and contains blood vessels, lymphatic vessels, and nerves that supply the heart. The epicardium provides a smooth surface for the heart to contract and slide against the surrounding structures within the chest, and it also helps to protect the heart from friction and trauma.
• What is the inner lining of the heart?

  The inner lining of the heart is called the endocardium. The endocardium is a thin, smooth layer of tissue that lines the inside of the heart chambers and heart valves. It is composed of a layer of endothelial cells that rest on a layer of connective tissue. The endocardium plays an important role in the function of the heart by providing a smooth surface for blood to flow over as it moves through the heart, and by helping to regulate the contraction of the heart muscle.
• What is the heart muscle called?

  The heart muscle is called the myocardium. The myocardium is the thick, muscular middle layer of the heart wall and is responsible for the contraction of the heart that pumps blood throughout the body. The myocardium is composed of cardiac muscle cells that are densely packed together and arranged in a complex, three-dimensional network. The myocardium is supplied with blood by the coronary arteries, which branch off the aorta and wrap around the outside of the heart.
• What two major vessels drain into the right atrium?

  The two major vessels that drain into the right atrium are the superior vena cava and the inferior vena cava. The superior vena cava is a large vein that carries deoxygenated blood from the upper body and head back to the heart. The inferior vena cava is a large vein that carries deoxygenated blood from the lower body and legs back to the heart. When the deoxygenated blood enters the right atrium, it is then pumped into the right ventricle and then to the lungs for oxygenation via the pulmonary artery.
• What valve is between the right atrium and right ventricle?

  The valve between the right atrium and right ventricle is called the tricuspid valve. The tricuspid valve is so named because it has three cusps, or flaps, that open and close to control the flow of blood from the right atrium to the right ventricle. When the right atrium contracts, the tricuspid valve opens, allowing blood to flow into the right ventricle. When the right ventricle contracts, the tricuspid valve closes to prevent blood from flowing back into the right atrium. The tricuspid valve is one of the four valves in the heart that help regulate the flow of blood through the heart.
• What are the muscular ridges called within the right and left atria? What do they do?

  The muscular ridges within the right and left atria are called pectinate muscles. These muscles are found in the wall of the atria and are characterized by their comb-like appearance. The pectinate muscles help to increase the surface area of the atria, allowing them to hold a larger volume of blood. They also play a role in the contraction of the atria, helping to push blood through the atrioventricular valves and into the ventricles. The pectinate muscles are more prominent in the right atrium than in the left atrium.
• What structures from fetal circulation is found in the right atrium?

  In fetal circulation, there is a structure called the foramen ovale that connects the two atria in the developing fetus. This allows oxygenated blood to bypass the non-functioning fetal lungs and flow directly from the right atrium to the left atrium, and then out to the body.

  After birth, the foramen ovale normally closes and becomes a depression called the fossa ovalis in the wall of the right atrium. However, in some individuals, the foramen ovale may remain open, a condition called a patent foramen ovale. This can cause some blood to flow from the left atrium to the right atrium, which may result in a reduced oxygen supply to the body.
• What are the sting-like structures called that are attached to the AV valves?

  The string-like structures that are attached to the AV valves are called chordae tendineae. The chordae tendineae are thin, fibrous cords that connect the valve cusps to the papillary muscles, which are small, cone-shaped muscles located in the walls of the ventricles. When the ventricles contract, the papillary muscles also contract, pulling on the chordae tendineae and preventing the valve cusps from turning inside-out into the atria. This helps to ensure that blood flows in the correct direction through the heart, from the atria to the ventricles and then out to the rest of the body. If the chordae tendineae are damaged or ruptured, the valve cusps may not close properly, which can cause blood to flow back into the atria, a condition called mitral or tricuspid regurgitation.
• What is the name of the muscles that the chordae tendineae attach to on the other end?

  The chordae tendineae attach to the papillary muscles on the other end. The papillary muscles are small, cone-shaped muscles located in the walls of the ventricles of the heart. There are typically three papillary muscles associated with the tricuspid valve, and two associated with the mitral valve. The chordae tendineae are attached to the papillary muscles by small, fibrous threads. When the ventricles contract, the papillary muscles also contract, pulling on the chordae tendineae and preventing the valve cusps from turning inside-out into the atria.
• What are the muscular ridges in the ventricles called?

  The muscular ridges in the ventricles of the heart are called trabeculae carneae. Trabeculae carneae are irregular, muscular ridges or columns of cardiac muscle tissue that are found on the inner surface of the ventricles. These structures are thought to help reinforce the walls of the ventricles and to prevent the walls from collapsing inward when the ventricles contract. Trabeculae carneae also contain some of the blood vessels that supply the myocardium with oxygen and nutrients.
• What is the function of tuberculae carneae?

  One of their main functions is to prevent the valve cusps from sticking together during ventricular contraction. The tuberculae carneae also help to maintain the structural integrity of the ventricles and assist in distributing the forces generated by the contraction of the heart muscle. Furthermore, the tuberculae carneae may also contribute to the regulation of blood flow through the heart by adjusting the size and shape of the ventricular cavity during contraction.
• Blood leaves the right ventricle and goes through which valve?


  Blood leaves the right ventricle of the heart and goes through the pulmonary valve. The pulmonary valve is located between the right ventricle and the pulmonary artery, which carries deoxygenated blood from the heart to the lungs. When the right ventricle contracts, the pulmonary valve opens, allowing blood to flow from the right ventricle into the pulmonary artery. When the right ventricle relaxes, the pulmonary valve closes, preventing blood from flowing back into the ventricle. The closure of the pulmonary valve produces the second heart sound (S2).
• Name the structures that blood passes through as blood leaves the right ventricle on the way to the lungs:

  As blood leaves the right ventricle of the heart, it passes through the following structures on its way to the lungs:

  Pulmonary valve: This valve is located between the right ventricle and the pulmonary artery. It opens to allow blood to flow from the right ventricle into the pulmonary artery.

  Pulmonary artery: This vessel carries deoxygenated blood from the heart to the lungs, where it will be oxygenated.

  Lungs: Oxygen from the air diffuses into the bloodstream in the lungs, while carbon dioxide, a waste product of metabolism, diffuses out of the bloodstream and into the air.

  Overall, the purpose of this pathway is to carry deoxygenated blood from the body to the lungs, where it can pick up oxygen and release carbon dioxide, before returning to the heart to be pumped out to the rest of the body.
• Blood goes through which valve from the left atrium to the left ventricle?

  Blood goes through the mitral valve from the left atrium to the left ventricle. The mitral valve, also known as the bicuspid valve, is located between the left atrium and the left ventricle of the heart. It has two cusps, or flaps, that open and close to regulate the flow of blood between the atrium and ventricle. When the left atrium contracts, the mitral valve opens, allowing blood to flow into the left ventricle. When the ventricle contracts, the mitral valve closes, preventing blood from flowing back into the atrium. The closure of the mitral valve produces the first heart sound (S1).
• Blood leaves the left ventricle through which valve?

  Blood leaves the left ventricle of the heart through the aortic valve. The aortic valve is located between the left ventricle and the aorta, which is the largest artery in the body. When the left ventricle contracts, the aortic valve opens, allowing oxygenated blood to flow from the ventricle into the aorta and out to the rest of the body. When the ventricle relaxes, the aortic valve closes, preventing blood from flowing back into the ventricle. The closure of the aortic valve produces the second heart sound (S2).
• What is the condition called where blood leaks back into the heart chambers through the one way valves after they have closed?

  The condition where blood leaks back into the heart chambers through the one-way valves after they have closed is called valvular regurgitation, also known as valvular insufficiency or incompetence. This can occur in any of the heart valves, including the mitral, aortic, tricuspid, and pulmonary valves. Valvular regurgitation can be caused by a variety of factors, such as congenital defects, infections, connective tissue disorders, or heart damage from conditions like heart attack or cardiomyopathy. Symptoms of valvular regurgitation can include fatigue, shortness of breath, palpitations, and swelling in the legs or abdomen. Treatment may involve medications to control symptoms or surgery to repair or replace the affected valve.
• Label the blood vessels as blood leaves the left ventricle until it reaches the descending aorta:

  Blood leaves the left ventricle and travels through the following blood vessels until it reaches the descending aorta:

  Aortic valve: The aortic valve is located between the left ventricle and the aorta.

  Ascending aorta: The ascending aorta is the first section of the aorta that branches off from the left ventricle and ascends upward before turning into the aortic arch.

  Aortic arch: The aortic arch is a curved portion of the aorta that bends backward and to the left, giving rise to several major arteries that supply blood to the head, neck, and upper extremities.

  Brachiocephalic artery: The brachiocephalic artery is the first branch of the aortic arch and supplies blood to the right arm and head.

  Left common carotid artery: The left common carotid artery is the second branch of the aortic arch and supplies blood to the left side of the head and neck.

  Left subclavian artery: The left subclavian artery is the third branch of the aortic arch and supplies blood to the left arm.

  Descending aorta: The descending aorta is the final section of the aorta that extends downward through the chest and abdomen, supplying blood to the rest of the body below the diaphragm.
• Which ventricle has thicker heart muscles? Why?


  The left ventricle has thicker heart muscles than the right ventricle. This is because the left ventricle is responsible for pumping blood through the systemic circulation, which involves a much greater distance and resistance than the pulmonary circulation served by the right ventricle. The left ventricle must generate more force to push blood through the systemic circulation, and this requires more muscle mass to create a stronger contraction. In contrast, the right ventricle only needs to pump blood through the low-resistance pulmonary circulation, so it does not require as much force and has thinner heart muscles.
• The left coronary artery branches into which two coronary arteries?

  The left coronary artery branches into the circumflex artery and the left anterior descending artery (also known as the anterior interventricular artery).
• The right coronary artery branches into which two major coronary arteries?

  The right coronary artery branches into the right marginal artery and the posterior descending artery (also known as the posterior interventricular artery).
• What is the name of the vein that runs next to the anterior interventricular artery?

  The vein that runs next to the anterior interventricular artery is called the great cardiac vein.
• What is the name of the vein that runs next to the posterior interventricular artery?

  The vein that runs next to the posterior interventricular artery is called the middle cardiac vein.
• Where do the major coronary veins drain before draining into the right atrium?


  The major coronary veins (including the great cardiac vein and middle cardiac vein) drain into the coronary sinus, which is located on the posterior surface of the heart. The coronary sinus then empties into the right atrium of the heart.
• List the correct sequence of the cardiac conduction system:


  1. Sinoatrial (SA) node: The SA node, located in the right atrium, is the natural pacemaker of the heart and initiates the electrical impulses that stimulate the heartbeat.

  2. Atrioventricular (AV) node: The AV node, located in the lower part of the right atrium, receives the electrical impulses from the SA node and delays them slightly before transmitting them to the ventricles.

  3. Bundle of His: The bundle of His is a specialized bundle of fibers that conducts the electrical impulses rapidly from the AV node to the ventricles.

  4. Right and left bundle branches: The bundle of His divides into right and left bundle branches that travel down the interventricular septum, carrying the electrical impulses to the right and left ventricles.

  5. Purkinje fibers: The bundle branches then divide into smaller branches of fibers called Purkinje fibers, which spread out through the ventricular walls and stimulate the contraction of the ventricles, leading to the ejection of blood from the heart.
• Which conducting cells are known as the heart's natural pacemaker?


  Sinoatrial node
• What does the P wave represent on an ECG?

  The P wave on an ECG represents the depolarization (contraction) of the atria. Specifically, it represents the spread of electrical impulses through the atria, causing them to contract and push blood into the ventricles.
• What does the QRS complex represent?


  The QRS complex on an ECG represents the depolarization (contraction) of the ventricles. Specifically, it represents the spread of electrical impulses through the ventricles, causing them to contract and pump blood out of the heart and into the circulatory system.
• What does the T wave represent?


  The T wave is a part of the electrocardiogram (ECG) that represents the repolarization of the ventricles of the heart. In other words, it reflects the electrical activity that occurs when the heart muscle is relaxing and preparing for the next heartbeat. The T wave is usually a small, upward deflection that follows the QRS complex, which represents ventricular depolarization. The shape, amplitude, and duration of the T wave can provide information about the health of the heart, and changes in the T wave may indicate certain cardiac conditions, such as myocardial ischemia or electrolyte imbalances.
• What does bradycardia and tachycardia mean?


  Bradycardia and tachycardia are medical terms used to describe different heart rates.

  Bradycardia refers to a heart rate that is slower than normal, typically less than 60 beats per minute in adults. Some individuals with a naturally low resting heart rate may not experience any symptoms with bradycardia, but others may experience fatigue, weakness, dizziness, lightheadedness, fainting, or shortness of breath.

  Tachycardia, on the other hand, refers to a heart rate that is faster than normal, typically above 100 beats per minute in adults. Like bradycardia, some individuals with a naturally high heart rate may not experience any symptoms with tachycardia, but others may experience palpitations, chest pain, dizziness, lightheadedness, fainting, or shortness of breath.

  Both bradycardia and tachycardia can be caused by a variety of factors, including certain medications, electrolyte imbalances, underlying medical conditions such as heart disease, and other factors. It is important to consult a healthcare provider if you experience symptoms of either condition, as they may indicate an underlying medical problem that requires treatment.
• What are the three layers of arteries and veins called from deep to superficial?


  turnica intima, turnica media, turnica externa
• Which layer contains smooth muscle?

  turnica media
• Which layer contains simple squamous cells?

  turnica intima
• Which layer contains connective tissue?

  turnica externa
• Which blood vessels have one way valves?

  veins
• What is the condition called when superficial veins protrude too much on the surface of the lower extremities due to an increase in blood pressure?

  varicose veins
• What is the name of the arteries that travel between the ribs?


  intercostal arteries