pt 2

• Which lymphatic organs act as filters?

  Lymph nodes are the primary lymphatic organs that act as filters. Lymph nodes are small, bean-shaped structures that are distributed throughout the body along the lymphatic vessels. They are responsible for filtering lymph fluid that flows through the lymphatic system, removing harmful substances such as bacteria, viruses, and cancer cells. Other lymphatic organs such as the spleen and thymus also play important roles in the immune system but do not function primarily as filters like the lymph nodes.
• Histology wise what are the two types of tissue in the spleen and what do they contain?


  Histologically, the spleen is composed of two types of tissue: the white pulp and the red pulp.The white pulp contains lymphoid tissue, which is composed of lymphocytes and other immune cells. It is organized into discrete nodules and surrounds the central arteries of the spleen. The white pulp is responsible for the immune functions of the spleen, including the recognition and removal of pathogens and foreign substances.The red pulp, on the other hand, is composed of blood-filled sinuses and cords of cells called splenic cords. The red pulp acts as a filter, removing old or damaged red blood cells, and filtering out foreign substances and pathogens. The red pulp also plays a role in the storage of platelets and iron.Together, the white pulp and red pulp of the spleen work together to support the immune system and maintain the quality of the blood.
• What structures compose the upper respiratory system?

  Nasal cavity: The nasal cavity is a large space inside the nose lined with mucous membranes that help to warm, moisturize, and filter the air as it enters the body.Pharynx: The pharynx, also known as the throat, is a muscular tube that connects the nasal cavity and mouth to the larynx and esophagus.Larynx: The larynx, or voice box, is a structure located at the top of the trachea, or windpipe. It contains the vocal cords and is responsible for producing sound.Trachea: The trachea is a tube that connects the larynx to the bronchi in the lungs. It is lined with cartilage rings that help keep the airway open.Bronchi: The bronchi are two large tubes that branch off from the trachea and lead to the left and right lungs.Bronchioles: The bronchi divide into smaller and smaller tubes called bronchioles, which eventually lead to the alveoli in the lungs.These structures work together to facilitate the movement of air into and out of the body and to protect the respiratory system from harmful substances in the air.
• What structures compose the lower respiratory system?

  Bronchioles: The bronchioles are the small tubes that branch off from the bronchi and continue to divide into smaller tubes.Alveoli: The alveoli are small air sacs located at the end of the bronchioles. They are surrounded by blood vessels and are the site of gas exchange, where oxygen is taken in and carbon dioxide is released.Lungs: The lungs are the main organs of the respiratory system, responsible for breathing and gas exchange. They are made up of bronchi, bronchioles, alveoli, and blood vessels.Pleura: The pleura is a thin membrane that covers the lungs and lines the inside of the chest cavity. It helps to protect the lungs and allows them to move smoothly during breathing.These structures work together to facilitate the exchange of gases between the air we breathe and the blood in our body.
• What are the lateral ridges within the nasal cavity called?

  The lateral ridges within the nasal cavity are called the nasal conchae or turbinates. They are bony structures covered by a mucous membrane and are located on the lateral walls of the nasal cavity. The nasal conchae help to increase the surface area of the nasal cavity, which in turn helps to warm, humidify, and filter the air as it enters the body. They also play a role in directing the airflow through the nasal cavity, which helps to improve the sense of smell.
• What type of epithelial cells line the nasal cavity and trachea?

  The nasal cavity and trachea are lined with a type of epithelial cells called pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelium. These cells are so named because they appear to be stratified, with layers of cells stacked on top of one another, but all the cells are in contact with the basement membrane. They are columnar in shape, meaning they are tall and narrow, and are ciliated, which means they have hair-like structures called cilia on their surface. These cilia beat in a coordinated manner to move mucus and foreign particles up and out of the respiratory tract, helping to protect the lungs from harmful substances. The cells also secrete mucus, which helps to moisten and trap foreign particles that are inhaled.
• What are the three regions of the pharynx from superior to inferior?

  Nasopharynx: The nasopharynx is the uppermost part of the pharynx, located behind the nasal cavity. It is lined with ciliated pseudostratified columnar epithelium and contains the openings of the Eustachian tubes, which connect the pharynx to the middle ear.Oropharynx: The oropharynx is the middle part of the pharynx, located behind the mouth. It is lined with stratified squamous epithelium and contains the palatine tonsils.Laryngopharynx: The laryngopharynx is the lowermost part of the pharynx, located behind the larynx. It is also lined with stratified squamous epithelium and serves as a common pathway for both air and food to enter their respective passages, the larynx and esophagus.
• What are the three tonsils and where are they located?

  Pharyngeal tonsil: The pharyngeal tonsil, also known as the adenoid, is located in the nasopharynx, near the opening of the Eustachian tubes.Palatine tonsils: The palatine tonsils are a pair of tonsils located in the oropharynx, one on each side of the throat, between the anterior and posterior pillars of the fauces.Lingual tonsils: The lingual tonsils are located at the base of the tongue, where it meets the oropharynx.All three types of tonsils are composed of lymphoid tissue and play a role in the immune system, helping to protect the body from infections that enter through the respiratory and digestive tracts.
• What is the name of the structure that protects the vocal "chords"?

  The structure that protects the vocal cords is called the epiglottis. The epiglottis is a flap of elastic cartilage that is located at the base of the tongue and above the larynx. During swallowing, the epiglottis closes over the larynx to prevent food and liquids from entering the airway and lungs. This protects the vocal cords and other structures in the respiratory system from damage or irritation due to foreign objects. When not swallowing, the epiglottis is open, allowing air to flow freely in and out of the larynx, which enables speaking and breathing.
• What is the piece of cartilage that closes over the glottis so you don't choke?


  The piece of cartilage that closes over the glottis to prevent choking during swallowing is called the epiglottis. The epiglottis is a flexible flap of cartilage located at the base of the tongue that closes over the glottis, the opening to the trachea, during swallowing. This action prevents food or liquid from entering the trachea and lungs, which could cause choking or aspiration. When not swallowing, the epiglottis remains open, allowing air to pass through the glottis and into the lungs for breathing.
• What are the two main pieces of cartilage that compose the lyarnyx?

  The larynx, also known as the voice box, is a structure in the neck that houses the vocal cords and helps to produce sound. It is composed of several cartilages, but the two main pieces of cartilage that make up the larynx are the thyroid cartilage and the cricoid cartilage.The thyroid cartilage, also known as the Adam's apple, is the largest cartilage in the larynx and is located in the front of the neck. It forms the anterior and lateral walls of the larynx and provides protection for the vocal cords.The cricoid cartilage is a ring of cartilage located below the thyroid cartilage, forming the base of the larynx. It is smaller than the thyroid cartilage and sits on top of the trachea. The cricoid cartilage provides support for the larynx and the vocal cords, and also helps to maintain an open airway during breathing.
• What is the anatomical name for the "adam's apple"?

  The anatomical name for the "Adam's apple" is the thyroid cartilage. The thyroid cartilage is a large piece of cartilage located in the front of the neck and forms the anterior and lateral walls of the larynx. It is one of the two main pieces of cartilage that make up the larynx, the other being the cricoid cartilage. The prominence of the thyroid cartilage in males is typically more pronounced than in females, which is why the term "Adam's apple" is often used colloquially to refer to the visible protrusion in the neck of adult males.
• What is the anatomical name for the windpipe? What is the junction called where the windpipe first branches as it goes into the lungs?

  The anatomical name for the windpipe is the trachea. The trachea is a tube-like structure that connects the larynx to the bronchi in the lungs, allowing air to flow in and out of the respiratory system.The junction where the trachea branches into the left and right bronchi is called the carina. The carina is located at the level of the fifth thoracic vertebra and is an important anatomical landmark for the placement of endotracheal tubes during intubation, as well as for bronchoscopy procedures. The carina is also lined with sensory receptors that help to trigger the cough reflex when foreign particles or irritants enter the trachea, which is an important defense mechanism for preventing aspiration into the lungs.
• What is the name of the smooth muscle that connects the cartilage rings of the trachea together?

  The smooth muscle that connects the cartilage rings of the trachea together is called the trachealis muscle. The trachealis muscle is a band of smooth muscle fibers that runs along the posterior surface of the trachea, connecting the ends of the cartilage rings. When the trachealis muscle contracts, it narrows the diameter of the trachea, which helps to increase the velocity of air flow during exhalation. During coughing, the trachealis muscle contracts forcefully to help expel mucus and other debris from the trachea and lower respiratory tract.
• What is the name for the first air passageways after the trachea branches? What is the name for the second and third branches?

  The first air passageways after the trachea branches are called the bronchi. The right bronchus is wider, shorter and more vertical than the left bronchus. The left bronchus is longer and narrower than the right bronchus, due to the position of the heart in the left side of the chest.The bronchi then further divide into smaller and smaller airways called bronchioles. The first branch of the bronchi into smaller bronchioles is called the primary bronchioles, followed by the secondary bronchioles and then the tertiary bronchioles. The bronchioles continue to divide into even smaller airways called terminal bronchioles, which eventually lead to the alveolar ducts and alveoli where gas exchange takes place.
• What are the name of the smaller air passageways that connect to the air sacks of the lungs? (hint: these smaller air passageways do not have any cartilage pieces supporting them)

  The smaller air passageways that connect to the air sacs of the lungs are called bronchioles. Unlike the larger airways such as the trachea and bronchi, bronchioles do not have any cartilage pieces supporting them. Instead, they are made up of smooth muscle and elastic fibers that can contract and relax to regulate the flow of air into the lungs. The smallest bronchioles, called terminal bronchioles, lead to clusters of air sacs called alveoli, where gas exchange occurs between the air and the blood.
• What is the anatomical name for the air sacks of the lungs?

  The anatomical name for the air sacs of the lungs is alveoli. Alveoli are small, thin-walled sacs clustered at the ends of the respiratory bronchioles and alveolar ducts. They are the site of gas exchange between the air and the blood in the lungs. The walls of the alveoli are very thin, allowing oxygen and carbon dioxide to diffuse easily between the air in the lungs and the blood in the pulmonary capillaries that surround the alveoli. The human lungs contain millions of alveoli, providing a large surface area for efficient gas exchange.
• Septal cells (type II pneumocytes) produce what secretion? What does it help do?

  Septal cells, also known as type II pneumocytes, produce a secretion called surfactant. Surfactant is a complex mixture of lipids and proteins that helps to reduce the surface tension of the fluid lining the alveoli. This is important because surface tension tends to cause the fluid in the alveoli to form into small droplets, which can make it difficult for the alveoli to remain open during exhalation.By reducing surface tension, surfactant helps to prevent the collapse of the alveoli during exhalation, allowing the lungs to remain open and function properly. Surfactant also helps to prevent the buildup of fluid in the lungs and plays a role in the immune defense of the respiratory system. Premature infants often lack sufficient surfactant production, leading to respiratory distress syndrome, a condition in which the alveoli collapse and make it difficult to breathe.
• Inflammation of the bronchioles can cause what respiratory dysfunction?


  Inflammation of the bronchioles can cause a respiratory dysfunction called bronchiolitis. Bronchiolitis is a common respiratory tract infection that primarily affects infants and young children. The inflammation and swelling of the bronchioles, which are the smallest airways in the lungs, can cause difficulty breathing, wheezing, coughing, and other respiratory symptoms.Bronchiolitis is most commonly caused by a viral infection, such as respiratory syncytial virus (RSV), but can also be caused by other viruses, bacteria, or allergens. In severe cases, bronchiolitis can lead to respiratory failure, which requires hospitalization and supportive care. Most cases of bronchiolitis are mild and resolve on their own within a few days to a week. Treatment may include supportive care such as hydration, oxygen therapy, and bronchodilator medications to help open up the airways.
• How many lobes are in each lung?


  The right lung has three lobes, while the left lung has two lobes. This is because the heart is located more towards the left side of the chest, which causes the left lung to be slightly smaller than the right lung and to have a space for accommodating the heart called the cardiac notch. The right lung is larger and has more lobes to accommodate the nearby organs, including the liver and the gallbladder. The lobes of the lungs are further divided into smaller units called lobules, which contain clusters of alveoli where gas exchange occurs.
• The left lung has what structure to make room for the heart?


  The left lung has a concave impression on its medial surface called the cardiac notch, which makes room for the heart. The heart is located in the mediastinum, which is the central compartment of the thoracic cavity that contains the heart, great vessels, thymus gland, trachea, esophagus, and other structures. The cardiac notch allows the heart to fit snugly against the left lung, while still leaving enough space for the other structures in the mediastinum. The right lung does not have a cardiac notch, but instead has a space called the cardiac impression where the heart rests against it.
• What are the three surfaces of the lungs?

  Costal surface: This is the surface of the lung that is adjacent to the ribcage. It is convex in shape and follows the contours of the ribs.Mediastinal surface: This is the surface of the lung that faces the mediastinum, the central compartment of the thoracic cavity. It is concave in shape and contains the hilum of the lung, which is the site where the main bronchus, pulmonary artery, and pulmonary veins enter and exit the lung.Diaphragmatic surface: This is the surface of the lung that rests against the diaphragm, the muscle that separates the thoracic cavity from the abdominal cavity. It is also concave in shape and follows the contour of the diaphragm.
• What is the indentation on the medial side of the lungs called that makes room for the bronchi entering and pulmonary arteries/veins going in and out of the lungs?

  The indentation on the medial side of the lungs is called the hilum (also known as the pulmonary hilum or pulmonary root). It is a concave area where the bronchi, pulmonary arteries, and pulmonary veins enter and exit the lung. The hilum is located on the mediastinal surface of the lung, which is the surface facing the mediastinum, the central compartment of the thoracic cavity. The bronchus and pulmonary vessels are surrounded by connective tissue sheaths and lymphatic vessels as they enter and exit the lung at the hilum.
• What is the serous membrane called that surrounds the lungs?

  The serous membrane that surrounds the lungs is called the pleura. The pleura is a double-layered membrane that covers each lung and lines the inside of the chest wall. The layer that covers the lung is called the visceral pleura, while the layer that lines the chest wall is called the parietal pleura. The space between the two layers is called the pleural cavity, which contains a small amount of pleural fluid that lubricates the surfaces and allows them to slide smoothly against each other during breathing. The pleura helps to protect and support the lungs, and also contributes to the mechanics of breathing by creating a negative pressure gradient that helps to expand the lungs during inspiration.
• What is the condition called when a lung collapses?


  The condition when a lung collapses is called pneumothorax. It occurs when air leaks into the space between the lung and the chest wall, called the pleural space. This can happen due to trauma, such as a penetrating injury to the chest, or it can occur spontaneously in people with underlying lung disease or weakness in the lung tissue. When air enters the pleural space, it can cause the lung to collapse or partially collapse, which can lead to difficulty breathing, chest pain, and other symptoms. Treatment for pneumothorax depends on the severity and underlying cause of the condition, but may include oxygen therapy, chest tube insertion, or surgery.
• What two major muscles are contracted during inspiration?

  The two major muscles that are contracted during inspiration are the diaphragm and the external intercostal muscles.The diaphragm is a large, dome-shaped muscle that separates the chest cavity from the abdominal cavity. During inspiration, the diaphragm contracts and moves downward, increasing the volume of the thoracic cavity and causing air to flow into the lungs.The external intercostal muscles are located between the ribs, and they help to elevate the ribcage during inspiration. When these muscles contract, they lift the ribs upward and outward, further increasing the volume of the thoracic cavity and facilitating the entry of air into the lungs.Other muscles, such as the scalene and sternocleidomastoid muscles in the neck, may also be involved in certain types of breathing or in situations where greater respiratory effort is required.
• What two main muscles are contracted during expiration?

  During quiet expiration (breathing at rest), the muscles that are primarily used are the diaphragm and the external intercostal muscles, which relax following contraction during inspiration. This passive process allows the chest to decrease in size, which reduces the volume of the thoracic cavity and causes air to be expelled from the lungs.However, during forced expiration (such as during exercise or singing), additional muscles may be recruited to help expel air from the lungs. The main muscles used during forced expiration include the internal intercostal muscles and the abdominal muscles.The internal intercostal muscles are located deep to the external intercostal muscles, and they help to depress the ribcage during expiration. When these muscles contract, they pull the ribs downward and inward, further reducing the volume of the thoracic cavity and increasing the pressure inside the lungs.The abdominal muscles, including the rectus abdominis, external oblique, and internal oblique muscles, also contribute to forced expiration by compressing the abdominal organs and pushing the diaphragm upward, which further reduces the volume of the thoracic cavity and increases the pressure inside the lungs.
• What are the four major layers of the digestive tract?

  Mucosa: This is the innermost layer of the digestive tract, and it consists of a lining of specialized epithelial cells that secrete mucus, digestive enzymes, and hormones. The mucosa also contains blood vessels and lymphatic vessels, which help to absorb nutrients from the digested food.Submucosa: This layer is located beneath the mucosa and consists of connective tissue, blood vessels, and nerves. It also contains glands that secrete enzymes and mucus to aid in digestion.Muscularis: This layer is made up of smooth muscle and is responsible for the peristaltic contractions that move food through the digestive tract. The muscularis consists of two layers of muscle: an inner circular layer and an outer longitudinal layer.Serosa or adventitia: This is the outermost layer of the digestive tract, and its composition depends on the location of the tract in the body. In the abdominal cavity, the serosa is a smooth, slippery membrane that helps to reduce friction as the digestive organs move against each other. In other areas of the body, such as the esophagus, the outermost layer is called the adventitia, which is made up of fibrous connective tissue that helps to anchor the digestive organs in place.
• What is the main epithelial cell type that lines the oral cavity and esophagus? The stomach and small/large intestines?


  The main epithelial cell type that lines the oral cavity and esophagus is stratified squamous epithelium. The stomach and small/large intestines are lined by simple columnar epithelium.
• What are the smooth muscle contractions called that propel food along the GI tract?


  The smooth muscle contractions that propel food along the GI tract are called peristaltic contractions or peristalsis. These contractions occur in waves and move food along the length of the GI tract, from the esophagus to the anus. The contractions are initiated by the enteric nervous system, which is a network of neurons embedded in the walls of the digestive tract. Peristalsis helps to mix and break down food, and also facilitates the absorption of nutrients from the digested food.
• Which teeth tear food? Grind food?

  The teeth that tear food are the incisors and canines, which are located at the front of the mouth. These teeth have sharp, pointed edges that are adapted for cutting and tearing food into smaller pieces.The teeth that grind food are the premolars and molars, which are located towards the back of the mouth. These teeth have flatter surfaces with cusps and ridges that are adapted for grinding and crushing food.
• What ligament holds teeth in place?


  The ligament that holds teeth in place is called the periodontal ligament. It is a fibrous connective tissue that connects the tooth root to the alveolar bone of the jaw. The periodontal ligament contains collagen fibers that anchor the tooth in place, while also allowing for slight movement and shock absorption during biting and chewing.
• What foramen allows for blood vessels and nerves to travel into the root of a tooth?


  The foramen that allows for blood vessels and nerves to travel into the root of a tooth is called the apical foramen. It is a small opening at the tip of the root of the tooth that connects the pulp cavity, where the nerves and blood vessels are located, with the surrounding tissues of the jawbone. The apical foramen allows for the exchange of nutrients and waste products between the tooth and surrounding tissues, and also allows for the transmission of sensory information to and from the tooth.
• What is the outer protective layer of a tooth? What is the softer material called deep to the outer layer?

  The outer protective layer of a tooth is called the enamel. It is the hardest substance in the human body and is composed primarily of calcium phosphate crystals. Enamel covers the crown of the tooth and provides protection against wear and tear during biting and chewing.The softer material deep to the enamel is called dentin. It is a calcified tissue that makes up the majority of the tooth structure and is responsible for supporting the enamel and transmitting sensory information to the pulp of the tooth. Dentin is composed of a dense network of microscopic tubules that contain fluid-filled processes from the pulp. These processes can be stimulated by thermal, chemical, or mechanical stimuli, causing pain or discomfort.
• What flap of skin connects the inferior side of the tongue to the floor of the oral cavity?

  The flap of skin that connects the inferior side of the tongue to the floor of the oral cavity is called the lingual frenulum.
• What are the names of the three salivary glands? How many of each? Location?

  Parotid glands: There are two parotid glands located in front of each ear. These glands produce a watery type of saliva that is rich in enzymes.Submandibular glands: There are two submandibular glands located on the floor of the mouth, on the inside surface of the mandible (lower jaw). These glands produce a mixed type of saliva that is both watery and mucous.Sublingual glands: There are two sublingual glands located beneath the tongue. These glands produce a mucous type of saliva.In addition to the major salivary glands, there are also numerous minor salivary glands located throughout the oral cavity and pharynx.
• What tube connects the oral cavity to the stomach?

  The tube that connects the oral cavity to the stomach is called the esophagus.
• What is the opening in the diaphragm for the esophagus?

  The opening in the diaphragm for the esophagus is called the esophageal hiatus.
• What is the name of the condition where the stomach protrudes through this opening in the diaphragm?

  The name of the condition where the stomach protrudes through the esophageal hiatus in the diaphragm is called a hiatal hernia.
• What are the outer curves of the stomach called? What is attached to these curves?


  The outer curves of the stomach are called the greater curvature and the lesser curvature. The greater curvature is attached to the greater omentum, a fold of peritoneum that hangs down from the greater curvature and covers the small intestines. The lesser curvature is attached to the liver by the lesser omentum.