psychopathology

• Norms


  Approved and expected ways of behaving in a particular society
• Abnormal behaviour


  Behaviour which deviates from or violates social norms
• Residual rules


  Unwritten rules in a society of which people are somehow aware and generally conform
• Social norms


  The explicit and implicit rules that a society has about what are acceptable behaviours, values, and beliefs
• Types of social norms


  • Explicit rules (stated)
  • Implicit rules (unspoken but followed)
• Deviance from social norms

  Seen as abnormal and undesirable
• Failure to function adequately (maladaptive behaviour)


  A person is unable to live a normal life, unable to experience the normal range of emotions, or engage in the normal range of behaviour
• 7 features of abnormality


  • Suffering
  • Maladaptiveness
  • Vividness & unconventionality of behaviour
  • Unpredictability and loss of control
  • Irrationality and incomprehensibility
  • Observer discomfort
  • Violation of moral and ideal standards
• Suffering


  Most abnormal individuals report that they are suffering, but it is not adequate on its own as a feature of abnormality
• Maladaptiveness


  Behaviour that prevents an individual from achieving major life goals such as enjoying good relationships with other people or working effectively
• Vividness & unconventionality of behaviour


  Behaviour that is relatively unusual and differs substantially from how most people would behave in those situations
• Unpredictability and loss of control

  Behaviour that is very variable and uncontrolled, and inappropriate
• Irrationality and incomprehensibility


  Behaviour that is not clear why anyone would choose to behave in that way, it is irrational and incomprehensible
• Observer discomfort


  When people see social behaviour rules being broken, they often experience some discomfort
• Violation of moral and ideal standards


  Behaviour may be judged to be abnormal when it violates moral standards, even when many or most people fail to maintain those standards
• One of the greatest problems with the seven features of abnormality is that most of them involve making subjective judgements
• The characteristics of the individuals making the diagnosis will affect their judgment as they are dependent on social norms and values and are relative to the situation
• Statistical infrequency


  If a behaviour or trait is rare, then it would be abnormal
• Normal distribution means that frequent behaviour is normal, and abnormality is anything that is statistically infrequent
• Deviation from ideal mental health


  Defining abnormality in relation to the signs of good mental health that are missing
• Marie Jahoda's 6 criteria of ideal mental health


  • Positive attitudes
  • Self-actualisation
  • Resistance to stress
  • Personal autonomy
  • Accurate perception of reality
  • Adapting to and mastering the environment
• The 6 criteria of ideal mental health show cultural bias as they reflect a Westernised view
• Classifications


  • DEPRESSION
  • OBSESSIVE COMPULSIVE DISORDER
  • PHOBIAS
• Emotional Characteristics of Depression


  • Sadness
  • Feel worthless, hopeless, have lost self esteem
  • Loss of interest and pleasure in usual hobbies and activities, feelings of despair and lack of control
  • Anger directed towards others or turned inwards on the self
• Emotional Characteristics of Obsessive Compulsive Disorder

  • Feelings of anxiety and panic
  • Obsessions and compulsions a source of considerable anxiety and distress
  • The individual recognises the thoughts are excessive or unreasonable
• Emotional Characteristics of Phobias


  • Emotional response is out of proportion to the actual dangers posed
  • Cued by the presence or anticipation of a particular object of situation
  • Persistent fear that is excessive and unreasonable
  • Feelings of anxiety and panic
• Behavioural Characteristics of Depression

  • Shift in activity level, either reduced or increased
  • Reduced energy, tired wishing to sleep all the time
  • Some people may be increasingly agitated or restless, may pace or wring hands
  • Sleep may be affected, some sleep more, some experience insomnia
  • Appetite affected, may reduce or increase
• Behavioural Characteristics of Obsessive Compulsive Disorder


  • Recurrent, intrusive thoughts or impulses perceived as inappropriate or forbidden. May be frightening or embarrassing
  • Obsessional themes include ideas, doubts impulses or images
  • Uncontrollable thoughts which create anxiety. Individual recognises the thoughts are a product of their mind
  • Sufferers aware the behaviour is excessive, causes feelings of embarrassment and shame
• Behavioural Characteristics of Phobias


  • May freeze or faint
  • Avoidance which interferes significantly with the persons normal routine
• Cognitive Characteristics of Depression


  • Negative thoughts, negative view of the world, generally irrational
• Cognitive Characteristics of Obsessive Compulsive Disorder


  • Behaviours not connected in a realistic way with what they are designed to neutralise or prevent. They are clearly excessive
  • Repetitive and unconcealed behaviours or mental acts that patients feel they must perform
  • Behaviours performed to reduce anxiety
• Cognitive Characteristics of Phobias


  • Irrational thinking and resistance to rational arguments
  • Recognises that the fear is excessive or unreasonable
• Behaviourist approach


  All behaviour is learned as distinct from being inherited
• Two-process model of phobia acquisition


  1. Classical conditioning (initiation)

  2. Operant conditioning (maintenance)
• Little Albert experiment


  • John B. Watson and Rosalie Rayner conditioned an 11-month-old boy to fear white furry objects
• Classical conditioning


  Phobia is acquired through association between a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus that produces fear
• Operant conditioning


  Likelihood of a behaviour being repeated is increased if the outcome is rewarding, explains why phobias persist
• If a neutral stimulus becomes associated with a fearful experience the result should be a phobia, but this doesn't always happen
• An experiment by Bandura and Rosenthal supported the social learning explanation for phobias
• Flooding


  A form of behavioural therapy where the client is exposed to (or imagines) an extreme form of the threatening situation under relaxed conditions until the anxiety reaction is extinguished