6. Memory

• Memory


  The processes used to acquire, store, retain, and later retrieve information
• Matlin, 2005: 'Memory is the process of maintaining information over time'
• Sternberg, 1999: 'Memory is the means by which we draw on our past experiences in order to use this information in the present'

  
• Memories


  • Form due to changes in brain neurons (nerve cells)
  • Changes in the connections between nerve cells (synapses) are associated with the learning and retention of new information
  • Strengthening these connections helps commit information to memory

  
• Memory formation


  1. Encoding: the information gets into our brains in a way that allows it to be stored

  2. Storage: the information is held in a way that allows it to later be retrieved

  3. Retrieval: reactivating and recalling the information, producing it in a form similar to what was encoded

  
• Sensory Memory


  Sensory information from the environment is stored for a very brief period of time, generally for no longer than a half-second for visual information and three or four seconds for auditory information

  
• Short-term Memory


  The information we are currently aware of or thinking about, lasting about 20 to 30 seconds
• Long-term Memory


  The continuing storage of information
• Atkinson-Shiffrin Model


  • Stimuli are recorded by our senses and held briefly in sensory memory
  • Some of this information is processed into short-term memory and encoded through rehearsal
  • Information then moves into long-term memory where it can be retrieved later

  
• Working Memory


  • Short-term memory integrates information from long-term memory with new information coming in from sensory memory
  • It holds information not just to rehearse it, but to process it

  
• Explicit Memory


  Formed through effortful processing, conscious remembering of prior episodes, often by means of intentional retrieval

  
• Implicit Memory


  Formed through automatic processing, influences of prior episodes on current behavior without intentional retrieval, and sometimes without conscious remembering

  
• Because of increased biological arousal during negative experiences, painful memories have increased longevity
• 56% of information is forgotten within an hour, 66% after a day, and 75% after six days
• Forgetting is the loss or change in information that was previously stored in short-term or long-term memory
• Alzheimer's Disease


  • A progressive neurodegenerative disorder, primarily affecting older adults
  • One of the earliest and most prominent symptoms is difficulty remembering newly learned information
  • Individuals may experience challenges in reasoning, problem-solving, and language skills
  • Can lead to mood swings, irritability, and changes in personality
  • As the disease progresses, daily activities become increasingly challenging
• Stages of Alzheimer's Disease


  • Early Stage: Mild memory loss and cognitive decline, often overlooked as typical signs of aging
  • Middle Stage: Increased memory loss, confusion, difficulty with language, and challenges with daily activities
  • Late Stage: Severe cognitive decline, loss of physical abilities, and a need for full-time care

  
• Risk Factors for Alzheimer's Disease


  • Age: Advanced age is the primary risk factor
  • Genetics: Family history and certain genetic factors, including the presence of the APOE4 gene variant
  • Other Factors: Cardiovascular health, lifestyle choices, and educational level
• Dementia


  A broad term that encompasses a group of symptoms associated with a decline in cognitive function, affecting a person's ability to perform everyday activities
• Types of Dementia


  • Alzheimer's Disease
  • Vascular Dementia
  • Lewy Body Dementia
  • Frontotemporal Dementia (FTD)
  • Mixed Dementia
• Symptoms of Dementia


  • Memory Loss
  • Cognitive Decline
  • Communication Difficulties
  • Impaired Judgment
  • Behavioral Changes
  • Loss of Function

  
• Stages of Dementia


  • Early Stage: Mild cognitive impairment, often unnoticed or attributed to normal aging
  • Middle Stage: Increased memory loss, confusion, and difficulty with daily tasks
  • Late Stage: Severe cognitive decline, loss of communication skills, and the need for extensive care
• Amnesia


  A condition characterized by partial or complete loss of memory, which can be temporary or permanent
• Types of Amnesia


  • Retrograde Amnesia
  • Anterograde Amnesia
  • Transient Global Amnesia (TGA)
  • Post-Traumatic Amnesia (PTA)
  • Psychogenic (Dissociative) Amnesia
  • Wernicke-Korsakoff Syndrome
• Mild Cognitive Impairment (MCI)


  Characterized by memory loss and cognitive decline, but individuals can generally perform daily activities without significant disruption

  
• Types of MCI


  • Amnestic MCI
  • Non-Amnestic MCI
• Traumatic Brain Injury (TBI)


  • Damage to the brain caused by an external force or trauma
  • The severity can range from mild (concussion) to moderate or severe, with temporary or permanent effects on cognitive, physical, and emotional functioning

  
• Huntington's Disease (HD)


  • A genetic disorder characterized by the progressive degeneration of nerve cells in the brain, affecting movement, cognition, and behavior
• Symptoms of Huntington's Disease


  • Motor Symptoms
  • Cognitive Symptoms
  • Behavioral Changes
• Parkinson's Disease (PD)


  • A neurodegenerative disorder that primarily affects movement, resulting from the gradual degeneration of specific nerve cells in the brain
• Symptoms of Parkinson's Disease


  • Motor Symptoms: Tremors, Bradykinesia, Rigidity, Postural Instability
  • Non-Motor Symptoms: Cognitive Changes, Autonomic Dysfunction, Sleep Disturbances, Depression and Anxiety