Theory and Methods Paper 1 & 3

• TOPIC 1: Quantitative Research Methods

  Quantitative research methods are favoured by positivists because they are objective and numerical, which means data can be cross-examined to generate cause and effect relationships, and generalisations can be made. Quantitative research methods include laboratory experiments, field experiments, questionnaires, structured interviews and official statistics.
• Laboratory Experience


  Favoured by positivists, lab experiments test hypothesise in a controlled environment where the researcher changes the independent variable and measures the effect on the dependent variable.

  
  

  ADVANTAGES

  
  

  > Highly reliable- the original experiment can specify precisely what steps were followed in the original experiments

  > Can easily identify cause and effect relationships

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  DISADVANTAGES

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  > Artificiality - lab experiments are carried out in a highly artificial environment and may not reveal how people act in the real world, any behaviour in these conditions may be artificial.

  > The Hawthorne effect - a lab is not a formal or natural environment - If people know they are being studied, they may act differently.

  > Ethical issues - the researcher needs informed consent of the participants - this may be difficult to obtain.

  > Unrepresentative: the small-scale nature of lab experiments reduces their representativeness.

  > It would be impossible to identify and/or control all the variables that might exert an influence on certain social issues (Eg. a child's education)
• Field Experiments


  Field experiments take place in the real social world, whereby the sociologist either creates a situation or adapts a real-life situation to their research purpose. Those involved are usually unaware of the research taking place.

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  ADVANTAGES

  
  

  > Less artificiality - field experiments are set in real-world situations.

  > Validity - people are unaware of the experimental situation (no Hawthorne effect) and are in their usual social environment, they will act normally.

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  DISADVANTAGES

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  > Ethical issues - involves carrying out an experiment on people without their informed consent.

  > Less control over variables than laboratory experiments.

  > Limited application - field experiments can only be applied to a limited number of social situations.
• Questionnaires


  Favoured by positivists, written or self-completed questionnaires are a form of social survey and can be distributed in a range of ways - notably, via post, email or handed out in person. Questionnaires are typically a list of pre-set questions that are closed-end questions with pre-coded answers.

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  ADVANTAGES

  
  

  > Practical - questionnaires are cheap and quick.

  > Quantifiable data.

  > Representative - reach a geographically widespread research sample.

  > Reliable - the questionnaire can be easily repeated due to how the questions are pre-set.

  > Limited ethical issues - the respondent is under no obligation to answer the question.

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  DISADVANTAGES

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  > Response rate - postal questionnaires in particular obtain a low response rate, which may hinder the representativity.

  > Low validity - People may be more willing to lie.

  > Unrepresentative - You are likely to get a certain group of people who would be more willing to answer the questionnaire.

  > The interviewer isn't there to ask follow up questions and explain questions the participants if they don't understand.
• Structured Interviews


  The positivist favoured method of structured interviews involve face-to-face or over-the-phone delivery of a questionnaire. In turn, they use a list of pre-set questions designed by the researcher and asked of all interviewees in the same way.

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  ADVANTAGES

  
  

  > Practical - training interviewers and administration is easy and cheap.

  > Representative - can reach a geographically wide research sample.

  > Results are easily quantifiable because they use closed-ended questions with coded answers.

  > Reliable - the structured process provides a 'recipe' for reproducibility.

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  DISADVANTAGES

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  > Lack of validity: People may lie or exaggerate.
• Official Statistics


  Official statistics are quantitative data collected by government bodies. This method is favoured by positivists because data is quick, cheap and easy to access, and it covers a wide range of social issues.

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  ADVANTAGES

  
  

  > Practical - Cheap and easy to obtain.

  > Practical - easy to access.

  > Allow to cross-examine, and deduce cause and effect relationships.

  > Collected at regular interviews, so you can compare trends over time.

  > Representative - often cover large groups of people.

  > Reliable - have to be filled out by law.

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  DISADVANTAGES

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  > The government collects these for its own benefit, misinterpreted by sociologists.

  > Definitions may be different.

  > Unreliable - census coders may make errors, or people may fill them out incorrectly.
• TOPIC 2 - Qualitative Data

  Qualitative research methods are favoured by interpretivists because they provide deep, subjective and meaningful insights into social behaviour. Qualitative research methods include unstructured interviews, participant observations and documents.
• Unstructured Interviews


  The interpretivist-favoured method of unstructured interviews mainly ask open-ended questions that produce qualitative data rich in meaning. There is a strong relationship built between the interviewer and the interviewee, which means the data is more likely to be valid.

  
  

  ADVANTAGES

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  > Rapport: the informality allows the interviewer to develop a relationship with the interviewee.

  ​> Flexibility - the interviewer is not restricted to a fixed set of questions.

  > Valid - they are flexible, due to how the conversation is not constrained by fixed questions. People can therefore be more truthful.

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  DISADVANTAGES

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  > Practical - Time-worthy - due to how unstructured interviews are typically longer, they consume more time and have a smaller research sample.

  ​> Practical - it is cost-worthy to train interviewers in sensitivity.

  ​> Un-representative - due to how there is a small research sample, data obtained is not representative of the wider population.

  ​> Not reliable - due to how the questions are open, they cannot be easily repeated by another researcher. Additionally, the respondent's ability to respond in the way they wish makes it impossible to clarify their responses.
• Participant Observation


  The researcher joins in the activities of the group they are researching.

  
  

  ADVANTAGES

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  > Valid- groups are observed in a natural and authentic setting, therefore the data is more likely to be a true account of the group's behaviour.

  ​> Valid - data generate is richly detailed and offers insight into social behaviour.

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  DISADVANTAGES

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  > Unreliable - being open-ended and subjective research, there is no fixed procedure or standardised system of measurement and cannot be replicated.

  ​> Unrepresentative - most participant observations investigate small-scale groups that are not representative of the wider population.

  ​> Not valid - the Hawthorne effect, due to how the observer is likely to affect the group's behaviour.

  ​> Not valid - the researcher is at risk of 'going native', meaning the researcher over-identifies with the group.

  ​> Ethical issues - it is difficult to ensure to the anonymity of participants.

  ​> Practical issues - there are issues with getting into the group, staying in the group and/or leaving the group.
• Personal Document

  These can take the form of diaries, memoirs, autobiographies and letters.

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  ADVANTAGES

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  > Valid - Written for personal purposes so will have a high degree of validity and provide an in-depth and genuine insight into people's attitudes.

  ​> Practical - They are cheap and save researcher's time.

  ​> Illuminates many areas of social life.

  ​> Can be used to confirm or question other interpretations and accounts.

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  DISADVANTAGES

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  > Some groups are unlikely to produce personal documents such as letters and diaries and so their views aren't represented while those with time and literacy skills may be over-represented.

  ​> Personal documents such as letters are written with an audience in mind and may affect what is being recorded. Personal bias is likely to be present.
• Historical Document


  ADVANTAGES

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  > They allow comparisons over time (for example birth, death and marriage rates).

  ​> They are useful when assessing the outcomes of various social policies (Eg. raising the school leaving age).

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  DISADVANTAGES

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  > Un-representative - some documents may have been lost or destroyed.

  ​> The validity of the documents are open to question as they may have been written selectively.

  ​> The authenticity of a document is open to question as it might not have been written by the person it is attributed to, therefore undermining its reliability.
• TOPIC 3 - Sociology and Science

  Positivists argue sociology can be a science by modelling itself on the natural sciences, using quantitative methods and induction or verificationism to establish observable patterns in behaviour and develop casual laws. On the other hand, interpretivists argue sociology cannot be scientific, because humans are governed by internal meanings. Therefore, the task of sociology is to use verstehen to uncover such meanings. Alternatively, Kuhn sits on the fence of the debate and believes sociology will never pass the stage of pre-science because there is never one dominant perspective, and it may never have a unifying theory.
• Sociology is a Science - Comte


  Science is there to explain how things relate to each other, using laws. It is possible to discover the laws that control and shape the behaviour of people in society. Therefore, the main task of Sociology is to discover general laws of social development through:

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  Laws of co-existence - looking at the relationship between parts of society

  Laws of succession - laws that govern social change
• Sociology is a Science - Durkheim


  Criticised Comte in arguing he had failed to study sociology as a science. Instead, he believed sociology is a science because we can study social facts as things to observe and measure (eg. suicide rate).
• Sociology is a Science - Inductive Logic and Positivism

  Inductive logic is a feature of positivism that makes a general conclusion from a set of specific facts. It uses objects that have been examined and experiments that have been conducted to establish a conclusion about an object that has not been examined.
• Sociology is NOT a Science - Popper


  For sociology to be a science it must undergo a process of falsification. In order to do this, the theory must use an inductive method, and then be challenged by a deductive method to prove it wrong. However, sociology cannot be a science because it cannot undergo falsification, due to how many sociological ideas are too abstract to be tested.
• Sociology is NOT a Science - Weber


  Uses interpretivism to study sociology from a subjective perspective. This draws on the ideas of verstehen which means sociology requires a subjective understanding which relates to opinions. However, science is strongly objective and could not be considered a science, nor should it want to be a science.
• Sociology is PARTIALLY a Science - Kuhn


  Scientific theory exists because it has undergone a series of paradigm shifts (an old way of thinking is replaced by a new one), whereby there is a unified theory and/or perspective that supports the scientific claim. In this instance, there are three stages:

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  Pre-science - a period of discovery where there was no central paradigm.

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  Normal science - scientists used an established paradigm to support their theory.

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  Revolutionary science - paradigms are challenged.

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  Kuhn argues sociology will never pass the period of pre-science because sociology does not have a dominant perspective.
• TOPIC 4 - Objectivity and Values

  Positivists believe society could be improved through objective scientific knowledge, free from values of the researcher. Interpretivists, on the other hand, argue it is impossible for sociology to be value-free due to how research is subjective and influenced by values in all aspects. For instance, the sociologists own values influence the method they may use. Alternatively, Weber fits between the two and argues sociology cannot be free from values in the research process, but can be free from values when collecting data.
• Positivists


  Sociology can be studied free of values because it is objective.

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  Myrdal and Gouldber - sociologists should only identify their values, but opening 'take sides', espousing the interests of actual groups.

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  It is undesirable to be value-neutral.
• Weber


  Sociology can be value-free once the research process has been chosen, but the values need to be explicitly stated.

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  Values as a guide to research - we can only select areas of study in terms of their value relevance to us.

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  Data collection and hypothesis testing - sociologists must be objective as possible when actually collecting the facts (eg. not asking leading questions, the hypothesis must succeed or fall solely on whether it fits the observed facts).

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  Values in the interpretation of data - facts need to be set in a theoretical framework to understand their significance. This is influenced by the sociologist's values, which must be stated explicitly.

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  Values and the sociologist as a citizen - sociologists are citizens, they cannot dodge the moral issues their work raises or the uses it is put to by hiding behind 'value freedom'.
• Interpretivists


  Sociology cannot be studied free of values because it is subjective. The sociologist's values are influenced by:

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  Choice of research topic

  Choice of method

  Funding body
• TOPIC 5 - Functionalism


  Functionalism is a structural perspective that views social order as based on value consensus. Parsons believes society is a system of independent parts, in which the function of each part is to help meet the needs of the system. Individuals are integrated into the system through socialisation and social control.
• Organic Analogy - Parsons


  Parsons identifies the similarities between society and a biological organism:

  
  

  > SYSTEM

  Organisms and societies are both self-regulating system of interrelated parts that fit together in fixed ways. In the body, these are cells whereas in society these are institutions (education system, government etc).

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  > SYSTEM NEEDS

  Organisms have needs (eg. nutrition), if these needs are not met, the organism will die. Functionalists see the social system as having basic needs (Eg. adequate socialisation) to maintain social order and survive.

  
  

  > FUNCTIONS

  The function for any system is based on the contribution it makes to meeting the system needs, which ensures its survival.
• Value Consensus and Social Order - Parsons


  Social order is achieved through a shared culture in a 'central value system'.

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  A culture is a set of norms, values, beliefs and goals shared by members of society, that provides the framework for cooperation between individuals, and allows them to define general goals, norms and values for society.

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  Social order is only possible if we conform to such norms and values. Parsons calls this value consensus.
• Integration of Individuals - Parsons


  The system has two basic mechanisms for ensuring individuals conform to shared norms and meet systems needs:

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  > SOCIALISATION

  The social system can ensure its needs are met by teaching individuals to internalise the norms and values through socialisation. Agents of socialisation include family, education system, media and religion.

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  > SOCIAL CONTROL

  Positive sanctions reward conformity, negative ones punish deviance. (Eg. the value system stresses individual achievement through educational success, those who conform are rewarded with degrees).
• System Needs - Parsons


  > ADAPTATION

  The social system meets its members' material needs through the economic sub-system.

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  > GOAL ATTAINMENT

  Society needs to set goals and allocate resources to achieve them. This is the function of the political sub-system, through institutions such as parliament.

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  > INTERGRATION

  The different parts of the system must be integrated together to pursue shared goals. This is the role of the sub-system of religion, education and media.

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  > LATENCY

  Refers to the processes that maintain society over time. The kinship sub-system provides pattern maintenance (socialising individuals to perform societies roles) and tension management (a place to relieve stresses after work).
• Social Change - Parsons


  Parsons identifies the two types of society (traditional and modern):

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  > TRADITIONAL SOCIETY

  - Ascribed status - status based on fixed traits by virtue of existence (eg. royal family).

  - Collective orientation - putting the group need before the individual need.

  - Diffuseness - relationships are broad with a wide range of functions.

  - Particularism - norms emphasise treating people differently through kinship.

  - Affectivity - immediate gratification of desires.

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  > MODERN SOCIETY

  - Achieved status - status based on performance (eg. education).

  - Self-orientation - individualism and pursuing self-interest.

  - Specificity - relationships are narrow and limited to specific purposes and functions.

  - Universalism - norms and values that apply to the whole nation and emphasise treating people equally.

  - Affective neutrality - deferred gratification (eg. working for qualifications and long-term goals.
• TOPIC 6 - Marxism

  Marxism is a structural conflict theory that has a fundamental rejection of capitalism. In capitalism, the bourgeoisie exploit the labour of the proletariat. They maintain their position through control of the repressive state apparatus and through hegemony. Marx believed that a dictatorship of the proletariat, leading to a classless society was inevitable. There are differences, however, between the types of Marxists. For example, Gramsci takes a more voluntaristic view that sees a greater role for human consciousness and action in bringing about change. Additionally, Althusser sees changes as the outcome of 'structural determinism'.
• Historical Materialism (Marx)


  Materialism is the nucleus to human survival - it provides individuals with food, clothing and shelter.

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  It is used to show change is driven by material factors such as food, shelter and money - each period of history, therefore, has its own unique set of characteristics.

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  Such characteristics in a modern society can be identified as a division of labour that occurs between the bourgeoisie and the proletariat, who are the forces and relations of production make up society's infrastructure.

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  Marx argues that every aspect of the infrastructure is dictated by the economic base (capitalism).
• Class Society (Marx)


  Marx identifies 3 successive class societies:

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  Ancient society - based on the exploitation of slaves tied to their owners

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  Feudal society - based on the exploitation of serfs legally tied to land

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  Capitalist society - based on the exploitation of free wage labourers
• Capitalism (Marx)


  Capitalism has 3 distinctive features:

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  The proletariat are legally separated from the means of production, they have to sell their labour power to the bourgeoisie in return for wages.

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  The means of production is in the hands of transnational corporations.

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  Competition forces capitalists to pay the lowest wage possible, causing immiseration of the proletariat.

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  Capitalism continually expands the forces of production in pursuit of profit.
• Exploitation (Marx)


  Marx argued that the bourgeoisie control society's surplus product which keeps the flow of the capitalist society driving - thus the capitalist society is based on the exploitation of free wage labourers.

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  leads towards a society of polarisation, whereby it allows capitalism to produce an ever more dominant ruling class and ever more alienated proletariat
• Class Consciousness (Marx)


  The notion that the proletariat need to stop becoming a class in itself but become a class for itself.

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  Marx argues because of the exploitative nature of capitalism, the proletariat develop their own economic and political interests in opposition this will influctuate a dictatorship of the proletariat, whereby they become aware of the need to overthrow capitalism.
• Hegemony (Gramsci)


  The ruling class maintain its dominance in two ways:

  COERCION

  The army, police, prisons and courts of the capitalist state force other classes to accept its rule.

  CONSENT

  The ruling class use ideas and values to persuade the subordinate classes that their rule is legitimate.

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  However, the ruling-class hegemony is never complete because:

  The ruling class are a minority and have to make ideological compromises with other classes.

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  Gramsci rejects economic determinism as an explanation of change: even though economic factors (eg. mass unemployment) may create preconditions for revolution, ideas are central to whether or not it will actually occur.

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  Although ruling-class hegemony may be undermined by an economic crisis, this will only lead to a revolution of the proletariat construct a counter-hegemonic bloc to win the leadership of society.
• Althusser


  Althusser argued that it was not just the economic base and superstructure that makes up capitalist society but it exists on three levels:

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  ON A POLITICAL LEVEL

  Through the government and organisations in charge of society.

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  ON AN IDEOLOGICAL LEVEL

  Known as the ideological state apparatus, reinforced by the media, education and religion.

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  ON AN ECONOMIC LEVEL

  Through the economy and production of goods.
• TOPIC 7 - Feminism

  Feminists study society from the perspective of women; they see women as subordinated by men, and seek to free women from their oppression. However, different feminists differ on the means in which they should do so. Liberal feminists seek legal reforms and a change in attitudes to bring equality. Radical feminists, however, see patriarchy as the fundamental conflict in society and believe separatism is the only solution. Marxist feminists determine capitalism to be the main beneficiary of women's oppression and not men. Difference feminists determine all women to be different, and therefore each woman experiences a different level of oppression.
• Liberal Feminism - Oakley


  SEX & GENDER

  > Oakley distinguishes between sex and gender:

  ​> Sex- your biological makeup.

  ​> Gender- what you socially regard yourself to be.

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  THE ENLIGHTENMENT PROJECT

  > Liberal feminists recognise the successive progress towards gender equality:

  ​> Changes in socialisation and culture - Gradually leading to more rational attitudes towards gender.

  ​> Political action to introduce anti-discriminatory laws and policies - Bringing progress to society in which gender is no longer important.
• Radical Feminism - Firestone

  > PATRIARCHY

  - The origins of women's patriarchy lie in women's biological capacity and care for infants, since performing this role makes them dependent on males.

  - Patriarchy is the primary and most fundamental part of all inequality and conflict.

  - Men are the women's main enemy.

  - All men oppress women. All men benefit from patriarchy.

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  > 'THE PERSONAL IS THE POLITICAL'

  - Radical feminists believe all relationships involve power, and they are political when one dominates the other.

  - Radical feminists focus on the way in which patriarchal power is exercised through personal relationships, often through physical or sexual violence.

  - Brownmiller argues the fear of rape is a powerful deterrent against women going out alone at night.

  - Sexual politics - personal relationships are political because men dominate women through them.

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  > ACHIEVING WOMEN'S LIBERATION

  - Separatism - living apart from men and creating a new culture of female independence, free from patriarchy.

  - Consciousness raising - women-only consciousness raising groups that may lead to collective action against men.

  - Political lesbianism - heterosexual relationships are 'sleeping with the enemy' and therefore lesbianism is the only non-oppressive form of sexuality.​
• Marxist Feminism - Barrett

  Marxist feminists disagree with radical feminists on the grounds that:

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  - Capitalism is the main cause of women's oppression (not patriarchy).

  - Capitalism is the main winner from female oppression (not men).

  
  

  They believe that women:

  - Are provide cheap exploitable labour.

  - Are a reserve army of labour.

  - Reproduce the labour force.

  - Absorb anger.

  
  

  IDEOLOGY OF FAMILISM

  Barrett believes that it is because of our ideology in society from birth that 'brainwashes' women to believe that the sexual division of labour and their position is natural and normal. The nuclear family is portrayed as the only place where women can attain fulfilment.

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  ACHIEVING WOMEN'S LIBERATION

  - Overthrow capitalism

  - Overthrow the ideology of familism that underpins the nuclear family and its unequal division of labour