Research Methods

Cards (121)

  • Natural Observation

    Recording participants' natural behaviour in their usual environment
  • Controlled Observation
    Researches control conditions such as where and when the observation occurs, who participates, and the circumstances with standardised procedures.
  • Covert Observation

    Where participants are unaware they are being observed. Their behaviour is observed in a public place and recorded secretly by the researcher
  • Overt Observation

    Where the participant knows they are the focus of an observation and informed consent has been given.
  • Participant Observation

    Where the observer becomes a participative part of the group being studied, so they can provide a first-hand account of behaviour
  • Non-participant Observation

    Where the researcher remains seperate from the group they are studying
  • Structured Observation

    Used to gather quantitative data by focusing on behaviours important to the investigation. Conducted using a pre-determined list of behaviours as a checklist
  • Unstructured Observation

    Researcher collects rich, detailed, qualitative data wherein they note everything they see - appropriate for smaller scale investigations
  • Event Sampling

    The sampling of the frequency of a particular event or behaviour eg through tallying. Valuable for behaviours that transpire infrequently
  • Time Sampling

    Recording behaviour within predetermined time frames: for a set duration or at specific time intervals eg every 3 minutes. Efficiently reduces required amount of observations but may be unrepresentative
  • Evaluation: Natural Observation

    Reduces interference
    High ecological validity
    High generalisability
    Extraneous variables
    Difficult to replicate - can't test for reliability
  • Evaluation: Controlled Observation

    Easy to replicate + test for reliability
    Extraneous variables less problematic
    Reduced ecological validity
    Demand characteristics may be an issue
  • Evaluation: Covert Observation

    Removes risk of demand characteristics
    Lack of informed consent creates ethical issues
  • Evaluation: Overt Observation

    Ethical as informed consent is given
    Demand characteristics are an extraneous variable
    Reduced ecological validity
  • Evaluation: Participant Observation 

    Valuable insight increases the validity of results
    Risk of identification with group leading to blurred lines and "going native"
    Cannot immediately record data - could lose objectivity
  • Evaluation: Non-participant Observation

    Data can be recorded at time of event
    Allows for objective psychological distance from study - less risk of 'going native' or identification
    Valuable insight may be lost, reducing validity
  • Evaluation: Structured Observation
    Quantitative data is easy to analyse and compare
    Recording of data is easier and more systematic
    Reduces observer bias
    Lacks detail and depth of qualitative data
  • Evaluation: Unstructured Observation

    Qualitative data is more detailed
    Data is harder to record, analyse, and compare
    Potential for observer bias (only recording what they notice in the moment)
  • Longtitudinal
    Takes place over long period of time
  • Strengths of Case Studies
    Rich and detailed
    Often longitudinal - allowing for observation of changes
    Use several methods increasing validity
    May highlight a need for further research
    Natural studies allow for investigations with would otherwise be unethical
  • Weaknesses of Case Studies
    Generalisation often problematic
    Researchers may be biased
    Difficult to replicate and therefore test for reliability
    Very time consuming
  • Directional Hypothesis
    Clearly states difference anticipated
  • Non-directional hypothesis

    Only states that there will be a difference, but doesn't specify how so, as there is no previous research
  • Operationalisation
    Stating how we will measure something and the units
  • How to start a hypothesis
    There will be a _____
    (increase, correlation, change etc)
  • Repeated Measures
    Same participants take part in each condition of the IV
  • Independent Groups
    Different participants allocated to two or more experimental groups representing different levels of the IV
  • Repeated Measures Eval

    Strengths:
    Good control of participant variables
    Fewer participants needed
    Weaknesses:
    Demand characteristics may occur if participants guess aim of experiment
    Order of conditions may cause order effects (bias)
  • Independent Groups Eval 

    Strengths:
    Avoids order effects as each participant only partakes in one test
    Less time consuming
    Weaknesses:
    Need more participants
    No control of participants variables
  • Matched Pairs
    Participants are matched for similar traits such as age and IQ, then one does condition A and the other condition B
  • Matched Pairs Eval

    Strengths:
    Some control of participant variables
    Avoids demand characteristics and order effects
    Weaknesses:
    Very time consuming - less economical
    Cannot control all participant variables
  • Counter balancing in repeated measures
    Half participants to condition A then B, others do B then A - controls for order effects
  • Types of extraneous variable
    1. Participant - individual participant differences eg age
    2. Situational - aspects of environment affecting DV eg noise
  • Confounding Variables

    Extraneous variables which also vary with IV
    eg one group coincidentally older - becomes another IV
  • Types of demand characteristics
    1. Please-u-effect
    2. Screw-u-effect
  • Investigator Effects
    Investigator's behaviour affects DV
    eg leading questions
  • How could we minimise extraneous/confounding variables?
    Randomisation - eg of participant groups or order of conditions
    Standardisation - Using the same formalised procedures for all ppts
  • Lab Experiment
    Conducted in highly controlled environment
  • Natural Experiment

    Researcher takes advantage of previously existing variable
  • Field Experiment

    Independent variable is controlled but manipulated in an everyday setting (ppt's natural environment)