ISSUES AND DEBATES

• GENDER IS PSYCHOLOGY-GENDER BIAS

  What are the 2 different ways theories may be biased?

  . Alpha bias-refers to theories that assume there are real differences between men and women.

  . Beta bias-refers to theories that ignore/minimise gender differences. They assume all people are the same and therefore you can apply the same theory/method with both men and women.
• What is the aim?


  . The aim is to produce theories that have universality.
• Who is psychology dominated by?


  . For most of its life Psychology has been very much male-dominated. Almost all psychologists were and are men, and therefore the theories they produce tend to represent a male-world view. This is known as androcentrism and may result in alpha or beta bias.
• What is the definition of gender bias?


  . The differential treatment or representation of men and women based on stereotypes rather than real differences.
• What is the definition of androcentrism?


  . Centred or focused on men, often to the neglect or exclusion of women.
• What is the definition of universality?

  . The aim to develop theories that apply to all people, which may include real differences.
• What is the definition of alpha bias?


  . Alpha bias-A tendency to exaggerate differences between men and women. The consequence is that theories devalue one gender in comparison to the other.
• What is an example of alpha bias?


  . An example from Freud's research...

  . Freud's theories reflected the culture in which he lived: in the 19th century men were seen as more powerful, more educated and regarded as superior to women.

  . His psychoanalysis theories are seen as Alpha biased-he viewed femininity as failed masculinity-he exaggerated the differences between men and women.

  . In his theories women are seen as being inferior to men because they are jealous of men's penises (penis envy) and because they cannot undergo the same Oedipus conflict as boys do (involves castration anxiety).

  . Because the Superego develops from the Oedipus conflict, women must therefore be morally inferior because they have a weaker identification with their mother.
• What is the definition of beta bias?


  . Beta bias-A tendency to ignore/minimise differences between men and women. Often occurs when females are not included in research. The assumption is made that what is true for men is also true for women.
• What is an example of beta bias?


  . An example from stress research...

  . Fight or flight research-usually conducted with male animals because in females the variations in hormone levels would make the research more difficult. It is assumed that male only samples don't matter because what is true of males is also true of females.

  . Assumed the fight or flight response was universal until Taylor (2000) challenged it.

  . They provided evidence that females produce a tend-and-befriend response at times of stress which is beneficial to ensure survival of offspring.

  . The beta biased approach of ignoring a possibility of differences in males and females meant female behaviour went undiscovered-there is actually a real difference!
• What is a consequence of beta bias?


  . A consequence of beta bias is androcentrism...

  . If our understanding of 'normal' behaviour comes from research using 'all male' samples, then any behaviour that deviates from this is judged as 'abnormal' or 'inferior'. This leads to female behaviour being misunderstood and even taken as a sign of illness!

  . E.G. Many feminist commentators have objected to the diagnostic category Premenstrual Syndrome (PMS) because it medicalises female emotions, especially anger, by explaining these in hormonal terms. Male anger, on the other hand, is often seen as a rational response to external pressures (Brescol and Uhlman, 2008)
• What is universality?


  It would be wrong to try and eradicate gender differences as a way to resolve the gender bias issue. The solution lies in recognising differences but not the superiority of one gender over another.
• +A strength is feminist psychologists propose how gender bias can be avoided. Worrell and Remer (1992) suggest women should be studied in real life meaningful contexts, and genuinely participate in research. Diversity in groups of women should be studied rather than comparisons made between women and men. There should be greater emphasis on collaborative research methods. These ways of doing research may be less gender biased than lab based research.
• What is the evaluation of gender bias?


  -One limitation is problems of gender bias in psychological research...

  . Gender biased research may create misleading assumptions about females and validate discriminatory practices.

  . It may provide scientific justification to deny women opportunities within the wider society/workplace.

  . Gender bias in research is not just a methodological problem-it may have damaging consequences which affect the lives/prospects of women.

  
  

  -Gender bias promotes sexism in the research process

  . A lack of women as senior researchers means females concerns may not be reflected in research questions asked. Males are also more likely to get work published.

  . Female pt.'s in lab studies are in an inequitable relationship with a researcher (usually male) who has the power to label them irrational/unable to complete complex tasks.

  . This means psychology may be guilty of supporting a form of sexism that creates bias in theory and research!

  
  

  -Essentialist arguments are common in gender biased research

  . Many gender differences reported by psychologists are based on an essentialist perspective-that gender difference is inevitable and fixed in nature.

  . Walkerdine (1990) reports how 'scientific' research in the 1930's showed that intellectual activity e.g. attending uni, shrivelled women's ovaries and harmed her chances of giving birth.

  . Essentialist accounts are often politically motivated arguments disguised as facts. This can create a 'double standard' in how the same behaviour is viewed from a male and female perspective.
• +A strength is feminist psychologists propose how gender bias can be avoided. Worrell and Remer (1992) suggest women should be studied in real life meaningful contexts, and genuinely participate in research. Diversity in groups of women should be studied rather than comparisons made between women and men. There should be greater emphasis on collaborative research methods. These ways of doing research may be less gender biased than lab based research.
• CULTURAL BIAS

  What is the definition of cultural bias?

  Cultural Bias is defined as the tendency to judge all people in terms of your own cultural assumptions, this distorts or biases your judgement. It is the tendency to ignore cultural differences and interpret all phenomena through the 'lens' of your own culture.
• What is alpha bias in terms of cultural bias?

  Refers to the assumption that there are real differences between cultural groups e.g. collectivist and individualist cultures.
• What is beta bias in terms of cultural bias?


  Refers to theories that ignore or minimise cultural differences. They do this by assuming that all people are the same and therefore it is reasonable to use the same theories/methods for each cultural group e.g. intelligence testing.
• How has cultural bias been shown in psychology?


  Researchers can wrongly assume that findings from studies in western cultures can be applied all over the world. E.G. Asch's conformity study and Milgram's obedience study revealed very different results when they were replicated in parts of the world outside of the USA.
• What is the definition of ethnocentrism?


  Ethnocentrism is defined as seeing things from the point of view of ourselves and our social group. Evaluating other groups of people using the standards and customs of one's own culture. In its extreme form it is the belief in the superiority of one's own culture which may lead o prejudice and discrimination towards other cultures.
• What is alpha bias in terms of ethnocentrism?

  Ethnocentrism is an example of alpha bias because ones own culture is considered to be different and better, the consequences of this is that other cultures are devalued.
• What is beta bias in terms of ethnocentrism?


  Ethnocentrism can also lead to beta bias, if psychologists believe their world view. For example, the case of IQ testing.
• How has ethnocentrism been shown in psychology?


  Remember Ainsworth and The Strange Situation! She reflected only the USA and their child rearing practices.
• What is the definition of cultural relativism?

  Cultural Relativism is the view that behaviour cannot be judged properly unless it is viewed in the context of the culture in which it originates. In a way it is the opposite of ethnocentrism as it is the idea that all cultures are worthy of respect and that in studying another culture we need to try and understand the way a particular culture sees the world.
• What is alpha bias in terms of cultural relativism?


  Can lead to alpha bias where the assumption of real differences leads psychologists to overlook universal behaviour.
• What is beta bias in terms of cultural relativism?


  Cultural relativism is often discussed in the context of defining mental disorder e.g. statistical infrequency. By assuming that the same rules apply universally (beta bias) we may diagnose some people as mentally ill but that diagnosis is relative to our culture.
• What is the definition of individualism?


  Individualist culture is associated with western cultures who are taught to value personal freedom and independence.
• What is the definition of collectivism?


  Collectivist cultures are said to place more emphasis on interdependence and the needs of the group.
• CULTURAL-RELATIVISM-EMIC AND ETIC APPROACHES

  What distinction did John Berry make between the etic and emic approach?

  John Berry (1969) has drawn a distinction between etic and emic approaches in the study of human behaviour.

  . An etic approach looks at behaviour from outside of a given culture and attempts to describe these behaviours that are universal.

  . An emic approach functions from within or inside certain cultures and identifies behaviours that are specific to that culture.
• What is an emic approach?


  Research that studies one single culture to understand culture-specific behaviour. Researchers study behaviour through the eyes of the people who live in that culture.
• What is an etic approach?


  Research that compares psychological phenomena across cultures to discover universal behaviours. The research aims to compare and contrast behaviours across cultures to find out whether the behaviour is culture specific or universal.
• What is the evaluation of cultural bias in Psychology?


  -One limitation is the distinction between individualist and collectivist cultures-individualist where independence is valued and collectivist where interdependence is valued.

  . Critics argue that distinction no longer applies-Takano (1999) found 14 out of 15 studies comparing USA and Japan found no evidence of a distinction between the 2 types of culture.

  . This could suggest that this form of cultural bias (seeing the world as individualist and collectivist cultures) is less of an issue than it once was.

  
  

  -There is cultural bias within the research methods used in Psychology e.g. culturally biased samples.

  . Sears (1986) reported that 82% of research studies used undergraduates as the pt's and 51% of these were psychology students.

  . They calculated that an American student was 4000x more likely to be a pt. in a study than a random non-westerner.

  . Therefore many findings in Psychology are not only unrepresentative globally but also not even applicable to other Western countries.

  
  

  -A further limitation is difficulties with interpretation of variables-pt's from differing cultures may not experience the variables in the same way.

  . For example invasion of personal space would be normal for someone from China whereas in the West it would be very threatening.

  . Issues such as this may affect interactions between the researcher and pt.'s and may reduce validity of findings.

  
  

  +A strength of cross cultural research is that it challenges Western assumptions/ways of thinking. Understanding the knowledge/concepts we take for granted are not shared by others may increase graters sensitivity to individual differences and cultural relativism. This means conclusions drawn by Psychologists are likely to have more validity as they recognise the role of culture in bringing them about.
• FREE WILL AND DETERMINISM

  What is the definition of free will?

  The notion that humans can make choices and are not determined by biological or internal/external forces.
• What is the definition of determinism?


  The view that an individuals behaviour is shaped or controlled by internal or external forces rather than an individuals will to do something.
• What is the case for free will?


  . Freewill & Humanism

  Rogers (1959) claimed that as long as an individual remains controlled by other people and things, they cannot take responsibility for their behaviour and therefore cannot begin to change it. Only when an individual takes full self-responsibility is personal growth possible, resulting in psychological health.

  
  

  . Another strength is that even if we do not have free will, the fact we think we do may have a positive impact on mind/behaviour.

  . Roberts et al (2000) demonstrated that adolescents with a strong belief in fatalism (the belief that their lives are 'decided' by events outside of their control) were at significantly greater risk of developing depression. This suggests that even if we don't have free will, the fact we think we do has a positive impact.

  
  

  . Face validity and free will (+ve evaluation for free will)

  Everyday experience 'gives the impression' that we are constantly experiencing free will through the choices we make on any given day. This gives face validity to the concept of free will.

  
  

  . Furthermore research suggests that people who have an internal locus of control, believing that they have a high degree of influence over events and their own behaviour, tend to be more mentally healthy.

  
  

  . The basis of moral and legal responsibility is that an individual is in charge of their own actions and can exercise free will. There is an assumption in our society, that 'normal' adult behaviour is self-determined. In other words, that humans are accountable for their actions, regardless of innate factors or the influence of early experience.
• What is the case against free will?


  . Neurological studies on decision making have revealed evidence against free will. Studied by Benjamin Libet (1985), and more recently Chu Siong Soon et al (2008), have demonstrated that the brain activity related to whether to press a button with the left or right hand occurs in the brain up to 10 seconds before participant's report being consciously aware of making such a decision.

  . This shows that even the most basic experiences of free will are determined by our brain before we become aware of them.

  
  

  . Is free will a universal concept? The idea of self-determination may be a culturally relative concept, appropriate for individualistic societies only. Collectivist cultures place greater value on behaviour determined by group needs.

  
  

  . Just being able to decide between different courses of action is not free will, but it may give us the illusion of having free will (Skinner). His point was that a person might 'choose' to buy a particular car or see a particular film, but in fact these choices are actually determined by previous reinforcement experiences.
• DETERMINISM

  What is hard determinism?


  Implies that free will is not possible as our behaviour is always caused by internal or external events beyond our control.
• What are the approaches linked to hard determinism?

  Biological approach

  Behaviourist approach

  Psychodynamic approach
• What is soft determinism?


  All events, including human behaviour, have causes, but behaviour can also be determined by our conscious choices in the absence of coercion (some element of free will)
• What are the approaches linked to soft determinism?

  Cognitive approach