Approach

• Identify 3 assumptions of the biological approach

  • Neurotransmitters
  • Localisation of brain function
  • Evolutionary influences
• What are neurotransmitters 


  chemical messengers
• Describe Darwin's theory of natural selection 


  The idea that any genetically determined behaviour that enhances an individual's chance of survival and reproduction will be naturally selected. These traits will therefore be passed on to future generations.
• What does localisation of brain function suggest

  This refers to the principle that certain areas of the brain are responsible for different functions
• Areas of brain and function

  Frontal lobe - attention, decisions, creativity & personality

  Parietal lobe - sensory info (temp, touch, pain)

  Temporal lobe - memory & auditory info

  Occipital lobe - visual info processing

  Reduced activity in prefrontal cortex = aggressive behaviour
• What are main components of drug therapy 


  Antipsychotic drugs - conventional & atypical

  Agonist & Antagonist substitution drugs
• What do antipsychotics treat?

  Schizophrenia
• How do antagonists work

  They block or stop a reaction - they bind to receptor sites and block them rather than activating them
• What's the difference between conventional and atypical antipsychotics 


  Atypical - also take action at the D1 receptor sites linked to negatuve symptoms of SZ ( as well as D2)

  Temporary effect as only temporarily occupy DA receptors sites and then they rapidly disconnect (usually within 24 hours) to allow for normal healthy DA transmission
• What is an agonist drug

  It binds to and stimulates receptor sites / mimics the effect of a substance or meurotransmitter
• What research supports the effectiveness of antipsychotics in treating SZ

  Cole et al - 75% of patients given conventional antipsychotic were 'much improved' compared with only 25% of those given placebo

  None given antipsychotic got worse vs 48% of those in placebo did
• Ethical issues of drug therapy

  X - Risk of harm - side effects (tardive dyskinesia, agranulocytosis)

  Methadone = risk of overdose when combined with other drugs

  X - chemical straightjacket

  X - lack of informed consent
• Some people view antipsychotics as a chemical straightjacket, what does this mean? Drugs (antipsychotics) 


  Drugs (antipsychotics), are simply a way of keeping people quiet and under control

  Psychiatrist Tomas Szaz went as far to suggest that the concept of mental illness is simply a way of excluding non conformists from society
• What methodology was Raine's study

  PET scans

  Quasi-experiment
• What was the IV and DV in Raine's study 


  IV = NGRI group v Control group

  DV = differences in brain activity
• What experimental design was Raine's study

  Matched pairs design
• How many murderers took part in Raine's study? How many were men? What was the mean age of ppts?

  • 41 murderers (39 men, 2 women)
  • Mean age 34.3 years
• Give features that Raines ppts were matched on

  Each murderer matched with control of same age and sex

  6 x SZ's matched with 6 SZ's from hospital
• At the start of Raine's experiment, what were all ppts injected with

  Radioactive glucose tracer - fluorodeoxyglucose (FDG)
• What was the purpose of the CPT 


  Continuous Performance Task (CPT) - Aimed to activate the areas of brain under investigation
• How long after the injection was the PET scan done?

  32 minutes after FDG injection, PET scan was done
• Which areas did the murderers show a reduced brain activity 


  Prefrontal cortex = loss of control over impulse

  Corpus callosum = poor transfer of info between the 2 hemispheres

  Left angular gyrus = cognitive deficits e.g. low IQ/school performance = violent offenders

  Left hemisphere (amygdala, hippocampus, thalamus)
• Which areas did the murderers show an increase in brain activity

  Occipital lobe
• Which brain structures studied by Raine showed no difference in murderers v control

  • Midbrain
  • Cerebellum
• Why can Raine's study be argued to lack internal validity 


  X - Quasi experiment so no cause and effect conclusions between brain abnormalities and violent behaviour

  NGRI - pre-existing difference so Raine had no control over IV or confounding variable that could have affected this

  Method used lacks internal validity as there could be other factors such as upbringing, which influenced their findings
• Why does Raine's study have high external reliability 


  The study is replicable

  E.g. PET scans can be repeated and the procedures were standardised (use of CPT & standardised timings) so study can be replicated to check for consistent results
• 1 piece of evidence to contradict Raine's findings 


  Bandura - Bobo Doll experiment found that children who observed an aggressive role model were significantly more likely to model/imitate aggressive behaviour. This shows violent behaviour is learned behaviour rather than due to biological factors as Raine found
• 1 piece of evidence that supports Raine's findings 


  Coccaro found that individuals with IED (disorder that results in explosive acts of aggression) showed increased amygdala activity compared to control group. Supports that abnormal amygdala activity is implicated in violent behaviour
• Give 1 strength of the ethics in Raine

  Gained consent - murderers agreed to PET scans to support their NGRI plea and the University of California approved the study in line with APA ethical guidelines
• Social implication of Raine's reserach 


  Implications in the legal system - Judges & Juries are frequently being asked to consider brain scan evidence in court. This needs to be regulated. Raine was clear that brain abnormalities are a pre-disposing factor only - it doesn't mean the murderers aren't responsible for their actions or that brain scans should be used to diagnose violent behaviour
• Social Implication in Raine's research 


  Misinterpretation/Misuse - could lead to labelling people with brain dysfunction as 'murderers' or people believing brain scans can be used to diagnose violent behaviour.
• What are the 3 themes to be discussed in ethics of neuroscience debate

  • Enhance brain function
  • Criminal behaviour
  • Consciousness
• NS is ethical as it can be used to enhance brain function 


  Kadosh et al - found that use of TDCS (using an anode to stimulate targeted brain areas by a small electrical current) led to improvements in mathematical, problem solving, language, attentional and memory capabilities.
• NS is ethical as it can be used to enhance brain function 


  A meta analysis of 289 patients with depression found TDCS helped to treat symptoms
• NS isn't ethical as concerns to be able to enhance brain functions 


  One study on a cadaver (dead human body) found that only 90% of the current reaches the brain tissue (though this is not representative of how it affects a live brain) and other studies are only pilot versions with small samples and that have not been replicated
• NS isn't ethical as concerns to be able to enhance brain functions 


  Fuchs - TDCS may involve some significant costs - if they become widespread there will be increasing pressure to enhance cognitive abilities in areas of social competition e.g. school/university entrance exams, exams or to improve performance in one's jobs. This would lead to the need to establish controls and regulation (like sports industry has for performance enhancing drugs). It also may increase disadvantages already faced by people from lower socioeconomic backgrounds in education and emplyment
• NS is ethical in helping to understand criminal behaviour 


  Raine used PET scans to identify brain abnormalities in murderers pleading NGRI. This was one of the first studies to identify that violet offenders have reduced activity in pre-frontal cortex and abnormal activity in other key areas of the brain such as the amygdala
• NS is ethical helping to understand criminal behaviour 


  Coccaro used fMRI scans and found that individuals with intermittent explosive disorder (IED) showed increased amygdala activity compared to the control group
• NS isn't ethical to understand criminal behaviour 


  Farah argues that previously offenders have been denied the right to social freedom (been put in prison) but they still have control over own body and mind. The use of neurological interventions (drugs) would deny the offender control over their body and mind which is arguably unethical. This means that NS may have some serious costs when being applied to offenders
• NS isn't ethical to understand and criminal behaviour 


  Use of brain scans in the courtroom as evidence is increasing but at present, there are no regulations or rules to guide judges and juries on how to use this evidence