B.F. Skinner

• Two of the early pioneers of behaviorism were E. L. Thorndike and John Watson
• behavioral analysis is a clear departure from the highly speculative psychodynamic theories discussed in Chapters 2 through 8
• • Skinner's behavioral analysis focused on observable behavior, minimizing speculation.
• • His approach, known as radical behaviorism, avoided hypothetical constructs like ego, traits, drives, and needs.
• Private behaviors like thinking and remembering are considered observable by the individual experiencing them
• • Skinner was a determinist, rejecting the notion of volition or free will. He believed behavior is lawfully determined and can be studied scientifically.
  • As an environmentalist, Skinner emphasized that behavior should be explained based on environmental stimuli rather than physiological or constitutional factors.
  • He argued that genetic factors, though important, are fixed at conception and do not aid in behavior control.
• • Watson's Contribution:
  • Watson took radical behaviorism further by disregarding genetic factors entirely and proposing to shape personality solely through environmental control.
  • In a famous lecture, Watson claimed he could shape any infant into any type of specialist regardless of their innate traits or background.
• • Current Perspectives:
  • Few radical behaviorists today accept Watson's extreme position, but his ideas have sparked considerable discussion and debate.
• • Thorndike observed that learning occurs due to the consequences of behavior, termed the law of effect.
• Edward L. Thorndike's Law of Effect

  • Initially, the law had two parts: responses followed by satisfiers are strengthened, and responses followed by annoyers are weakened.
• Edward L. Thorndike's Law of Effect

  Later, Thorndike minimized the importance of annoyers, emphasizing that rewards strengthen connections between stimuli and responses, while punishments merely inhibit behavior.
• Influence of John B. Watson

  • Watson rejected consciousness and introspection in the scientific study of human behavior.

  He argued that human behavior, like that of animals and machines, can be objectively studied.

  Watson advocated for an objective study of habits formed through stimulus-response connections, rejecting concepts like instinct, sensation, and motivation.
• Scientific Behaviorism

  • Skinner, influenced by Thorndike and Watson, emphasized that human behavior should be studied scientifically.
• Scientific Behaviorism

  • Skinner's scientific behaviorism holds that behavior should be studied without reference to needs, instincts, or motives.
• Scientific Behaviorism

  • He rejected the attribution of motivation to behavior, comparing it to attributing free will to natural phenomena.
• Philosophy of Science according to Skinner

  • Science is cumulative, advancing in a manner not seen in the humanities.
• Predictability and Control in Behavior

  Skinner believed that behavior is determined and follows lawful principles, allowing for prediction, control, and description.

  He focused on discovering the conditions under which behavior occurs through operant conditioning.
• classical conditioning


  a neutral (conditioned) stimulus is paired with—that is, immediately precedes—an unconditioned stimulus a number of times until it is capable of bringing about a previously unconditioned response, now called the con ditioned response
• operant conditioning


  the immediate reinforcement of a response. The organ ism first does something and then is reinforced by the environment. Reinforcement, in turn, increases the probability that the same behavior will occur again
• Shaping


  a procedure in which the experimenter or the environment first rewards gross approximations of the behavior, then closer approximations, and finally the desired behavior itself.
• Through this process of reinforcing successive approximations, the experimenter or the environment gradually shapes the final complex set of behaviors
• operant conditioning, three conditions

  The antecedent (A) refers to the environment or setting in which the behavior takes place. In our example, this environment would be the home or any other place the child might be putting on clothes
• operan conditioning three conditions

  behavior (B) of dressing himself. This response must be within the boy’s repertoire and must not be interfered with by competing or antagonis tic behaviors, such as distractions from siblings or television
• operant conditioning, three conditions

  consequence is the reward (C), that is, the candy.
• Each of us has a history of being reinforced by reacting to some elements in our environment but not to others. This history of differential reinforcement results in operant discrimination
• A response to a similar environment in the absence of previous reinforce ment is called stimulus generalization
• reinforcement has two effects: It strengthens the behav ior and it rewards the person.
• Positive Reinforcement  Any positive consequence that, when added to a situation, increases the probability that a given behavior will occur
• Negative Reinforcement Subtracting a negative consequence from a situation also increases the probability that the preceding behavior will occur.
• punishment is the presentation or addition of a negative, aversive consequence such as a hefty fine for an able-bodied driver parking in a handicapped spot
• Effects of Punishment 

  Consequently, one effect of punishment is to suppress behavior. For example, if a boy teases his younger sister, his parents can make him stop by spanking him, but unfortunately this punishment will not improve his disposition toward his sister
• Effects of Punishment 

  conditioning of a negative feeling by associat ing a strong aversive stimulus with the behavior being punished. In the above illustra tion, if the pain of the spanking is strong enough, it will instigate a response (crying, withdrawal, attack) that is incompatible with the behavior of teasing a younger sib ling.
• Effects of Punishment 

  spread of its effects. Any stimulus associated with the punishment may be suppressed or avoided. In our example, the boy may simply learn to avoid his younger sister, stay away from his parents, or develop negative feelings toward the paddle or the place where the paddling occurred
• conditioned reinforcer


  those environmental stimuli that are not by nature satisfying but become so because they are associated with such unlearned or primary reinforcers as food, water, sex, or physical comfort.
• generalized reinforcer because it is associated with more than one primary reinforcer
• Schedules of Reinforcement

  continuous schedule, the organism is reinforced for every response. This type of schedule increases the frequency of a response but is an inef ficient use of the reinforcer.
• Schedules of Reinforcement

  intermittent schedules produce responses that are more resistant to extinction.
• Schedules of Reinforcement

  fixed-ratio schedule organism is reinforced intermittently according to the number of responses it makes.
• Schedules of Reinforcement

  variable-ratio schedule, it is reinforced after the nth response on the average.
• Schedules of Reinforcement

  fixed-interval schedule, the organism is reinforced for the first response following a designated period of time.