Mitosis meiosis

• Cytokinesis: The cell divides into two daughter cells, each with half the number of chromosomes as the parent cell.
• Biogeochemical cycles describe the movement of elements and compounds between living organisms, the atmosphere, bodies of water, and the Earth's crust. These cycles involve both biotic (living) and abiotic (non-living) components of the Earth system.
• Evolutionary Studies**: Understanding genetic variation and adaptation in populations over time.
• Forensics**: DNA fingerprinting for identifying individuals and solving crimes.
• Medicine**: Gene therapy for treating genetic disorders, pharmacogenomics for personalized medicine, and genetic testing for disease risk assessment.
• Genetic Engineering**: The manipulation of an organism's genes using biotechnology techniques. This includes gene editing technologies like CRISPR-Cas9, which allows precise modification of DNA sequences.
• Agriculture**: Genetically modified crops for increased yield, pest resistance, and nutrient content.
• Chromosomal Disorders**: Result from abnormalities in chromosome number or structure. Examples include Down syndrome (trisomy 21) and Turner syndrome (monosomy X).
• Multifactorial Disorders**: Caused by a combination of genetic and environmental factors. Examples include heart disease, diabetes, and some forms of cancer.
• Genetic Variation**: Genetic variation arises from mutations, genetic recombination during sexual reproduction, and random assortment of chromosomes during cell division (meiosis).
• DNA**: Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) is the molecule that carries the genetic instructions in all living organisms. It is composed of two long strands forming a double helix structure, made up of nucleotides containing a sugar, a phosphate group, and a nitrogenous base.
• Ribosomes:** - Function: Site of protein synthesis, where mRNA is translated into protein. - Structure: Made of ribosomal RNA (rRNA) and protein, exists as free-floating or attached to the endoplasmic reticulum. - Components: Large subunit, small subunit, mRNA-binding site, tRNA-binding site.
• Vacuoles:** - Function: Store water, nutrients, and waste products, and provide structural support. - Structure: Membrane-bound sacs. - Components: Tonoplast (membrane surrounding the vacuole), sap (fluid inside vacuole).
• Chloroplasts:** - Function: Site of photosynthesis, where light energy is converted into chemical energy (glucose). - Structure: Double membrane structure with internal membranes called thylakoids. - Components: Chlorophyll (pigment for capturing light energy), stroma (fluid-filled space), DNA (chloroplast DNA), ribosomes.
• Lysosomes:** - Function: Contain digestive enzymes to break down waste materials and cellular debris. - Structure: Membrane-bound vesicles containing hydrolytic enzymes. - Components: Acidic interior (pH ~5), enzymes (e.g., proteases, lipases).
• Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER):** - Function: Rough ER synthesizes proteins and transports them, while smooth ER synthesizes lipids and detoxifies drugs. - Structure: Network of membrane-bound tubules and sacs. - Components: Ribosomes (on rough ER), enzymes (in smooth ER).
• Golgi Apparatus:** - Function: Modifies, sorts, and packages proteins and lipids for transport. - Structure: Stack of flattened membrane-bound sacs called cisternae. - Components: Vesicles (transport materials to and from Golgi), enzymes.
• Mitochondria:** - Function: Powerhouse of the cell, produces ATP through cellular respiration. - Structure: Double membrane structure with inner folds called cristae. - Components: Matrix (inner fluid-filled space), DNA (mitochondrial DNA), ribosomes.
• Cytokinesis: The cytoplasm divides, resulting in two daughter cells.
• Nucleus:** - Function: Contains the cell's genetic material (DNA) and controls cellular activities. - Structure: Surrounded by a double membrane called the nuclear envelope, with pores for the passage of molecules. - Components: Chromatin (DNA and proteins), nucleolus (site of ribosome synthesis).
• Telophase: Chromosomes decondense, nuclear envelopes re-form, and spindle fibers disassemble.
• Metaphase: Chromosomes line up along the metaphase plate in the center of the cell.
• Anaphase: Sister chromatids separate and move towards opposite poles of the cell.
• Prophase: Chromatin condenses into chromosomes, the nuclear envelope breaks down, and spindle fibers form.
• Mitosis is a type of cell division that results in two daughter cells with the same number of chromosomes as the parent cell. It is a crucial process for growth, repair, and asexual reproduction in organisms.
• Interphase: The cell prepares for division by duplicating its DNA and organelles.
• Meiosis produces four genetically diverse daughter cells, each with half the number of chromosomes as the parent cell. These cells are gametes and are crucial for sexual reproduction.
• Meiosis produces four genetically diverse daughter cells, each with half the number of chromosomes as the parent cell. These cells are gametes and are crucial for sexual reproduction.
• • Meiosis II: Similar to mitosis but without DNA replication, resulting in the division of sister chromatids
• Mitosis produces two genetically identical daughter cells, each with the same number of chromosomes as the parent cell. It is essential for growth, tissue repair, and maintenance of the body's cells.
• Cytokinesis: The cell divides into two daughter cells, each with half the number of chromosomes as the parent cell.
• Telophase I: Chromosomes may partially decondense, and the cell may briefly enter interkinesis