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• Digestive system


  A group of organs working together to convert food into energy and essential nutrients for the body
• Organs involved in the digestive system


  • Mouth
  • Esophagus
  • Stomach
  • Small Intestine
  • Large Intestine (Colon)
  • Rectum and Anus
• Mouth


  • Begins mechanical digestion through chewing and chemical digestion with saliva containing enzymes
• Esophagus


  • Muscular tube that transports food to the stomach through peristalsis
• Stomach


  • Continues chemical digestion with gastric juices and enzymes, breaking down food into a semi-liquid form
• Small Intestine


  • Main site of nutrient absorption, consists of three parts: duodenum, jejunum, and ileum
• Large Intestine (Colon)


  • Absorbs water and electrolytes, and forms and stores feces
• Rectum and Anus


  • Store and expel waste from the body
• Digestive processes


  • Ingestion
  • Digestion
  • Absorption
  • Assimilation
  • Defecation
• Accessory organs

  • Liver
  • Gallbladder
  • Pancreas
• Liver


  • Produces bile for fat digestion and detoxifies harmful substances
• Gallbladder


  • Stores and concentrates bile produced by the liver
• Pancreas


  • Secretes digestive enzymes and bicarbonate into the small intestine to aid in digestion
• Peristalsis


  Involuntary muscle contractions that move food through the digestive tract
• Microbiome


  The collection of microorganisms living in the digestive tract that aid in digestion, immune function, and overall health
• Digestive disorders and diseases


  • Gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD)
  • Ulcers
  • Irritable bowel syndrome (IBS)
  • Crohn's disease
  • Colitis
  • Gallstones
  • Pancreatitis
• Mitosis


  A type of cell division that results in two daughter cells with the same number of chromosomes as the parent cell, crucial for growth, repair, and asexual reproduction
• Stages of mitosis


  • Interphase
  • Prophase
  • Metaphase
  • Anaphase
  • Telophase
  • Cytokinesis
• Mitosis produces two genetically identical daughter cells, each with the same number of chromosomes as the parent cell
• Meiosis


  A type of cell division that occurs in sexually reproducing organisms, resulting in the formation of gametes (sperm and egg cells) with half the number of chromosomes as the parent cell
• Stages of meiosis


  • Interphase
  • Meiosis I (Prophase I, Metaphase I, Anaphase I, Telophase I, Cytokinesis)
  • Meiosis II (Prophase II, Metaphase II, Anaphase II, Telophase II, Cytokinesis)
• Meiosis produces four genetically diverse daughter cells, each with half the number of chromosomes as the parent cell
• Mitosis is responsible for growth and tissue repair, while meiosis generates genetic diversity among offspring
• Nucleus


  Contains the cell's genetic material (DNA) and controls cellular activities, surrounded by a double membrane called the nuclear envelope
• Mitochondria


  Powerhouse of the cell, produces ATP through cellular respiration, with a double membrane structure and inner folds called cristae
• Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)


  Rough ER synthesizes proteins and transports them, while smooth ER synthesizes lipids and detoxifies drugs, a network of membrane-bound tubules and sacs
• Golgi Apparatus


  Modifies, sorts, and packages proteins and lipids for transport, a stack of flattened membrane-bound sacs called cisternae
• Lysosomes


  Contain digestive enzymes to break down waste materials and cellular debris, membrane-bound vesicles with an acidic interior
• Vacuoles


  Store water, nutrients, and waste products, and provide structural support, membrane-bound sacs
• Chloroplasts


  Site of photosynthesis, where light energy is converted into chemical energy (glucose), a double membrane structure with internal membranes called thylakoids
• Ribosomes


  Site of protein synthesis, where mRNA is translated into protein, made of ribosomal RNA (rRNA) and protein, exists as free-floating or attached to the endoplasmic reticulum
• Genetics


  The study of genes, heredity, and variation in living organisms, where genes are units of heredity that are passed from parents to offspring and contain instructions for building and maintaining an organism
• DNA


  Deoxyribonucleic acid, the molecule that carries the genetic instructions in all living organisms, composed of two long strands forming a double helix structure, made up of nucleotides containing a sugar, a phosphate group, and a nitrogenous base
• Genetic variation


  Arises from mutations, genetic recombination during sexual reproduction, and random assortment of chromosomes during cell division (meiosis)
• Inheritance patterns


  • Mendelian Inheritance
  • Polygenic Inheritance
  • Sex-linked Inheritance
• Genetic disorders


  • Monogenic Disorders
  • Multifactorial Disorders
  • Chromosomal Disorders
• Genetic engineering


  The manipulation of an organism's genes using biotechnology techniques, including gene editing technologies like CRISPR-Cas9
• Applications of genetics


  • Agriculture
  • Medicine
  • Forensics
  • Evolutionary Studies
• Biogeochemical cycles


  Describe the movement of elements and compounds between living organisms, the atmosphere, bodies of water, and the Earth's crust, involving both biotic (living) and abiotic (non-living) components
• Key elements in biogeochemical cycles


  • Carbon
  • Nitrogen
  • Phosphorus
  • Sulfur
  • Oxygen
  • Water