Research Methods

• primary data


  Generated by research themselves, such a questionnaire
• secondary data


  Already available to sociologist such as official statistics
• qualitative data


  Written an in-depth, such as interviews preferred by interpretivist
• quantitative data


  Numerical and inform of stats, such as surveys preferred by positivists
• positivists


  Prefer quantitative data that is numerical reliability, accurate. Prefer objectivity so no biased present and data can be generalised such as questionnaires. Official statistics and structured interviews. Can identify patterns and trends
• Interpretivist -rich in detail


  Prefer qualitative data that is in-depth and has meanings and experiences explained. Data is subjective so has opinions of researcher and validity. Also like to gain verstehen which is empathy and rapport so can build relationship with participant like to understand data such as observations and ethnography.
• concepts


  Validity is truthful data and preferred by interpretivist

  Reliability is when something can be repeated and preferred by positivists

  Representativeness is when it represents the target sample and is preferred by positivists

  Practical is if it saves time and money

  Ethical is if it is anonymous and takes into consideration, participants, feelings and purpose

  Generalise ability is if it applies to the rest of the population
• research process


  Influence influencing choice of topic:

  Sociological problems such as funding

  Social problems such as crime rates

  Organisation employing sociologists

  Accessibility

  Practical issues
• sample


  Small group of a big group and wants to cover target population
• concepts


  Accessibility: gatekeeper is someone who gets sociologist access to participants you want to study, and can be a problem if not one present

  Practical issues: such as time and costs

  Ethical issues: such as consent, confidentiality and protection from harm
• social and sociology policy


  Sociologist conduct research, then hand to policy maker to interpret data

  Sociologist take responsibility for how work translated
• interpretation of data


  Positively say all data should be included to decrease objectivity, which is bias
• longitudinal problems


  Respondents may die

  Respondents may drop out

  Research and may become close, which leads to bias
• consider:


  Ethics such as informed, consent, confidentiality, deception, privacy and protection from harm

  Bias which is subjectivity and can reduce by pilot study
• Key concepts


  Pilot study is a small scale study to check for problems

  Operationalism is defining key terms to form basis of research, such as Jackson defined laddism
• 7 stages of research process


  Decide topic

  Read about it

  Form hypothesis

  Decide if using primary or secondary data

  Operationalism

  Choose either quantitive or qualitative method

  Pilot study
• sampling

  Need to select sample to be representative

  Two types of sampling are:

  1.Random which is representative and everybody has equal opportunity. It is quick but time consuming

  2.Non-random, which is not specific not representative but easy to do
• Random sampling methods


  Systematic which is randomly choosing a number between one and 10 and then picking out every 10th one

  Stratified is population divided into different groups and using random sample to select

  Both are representative and require a sampling frame
• non-random sampling methods


  Snowball is when research to find somebody and interviews them and ask if they know anybody else

  Quota is targeting certain amount of people who fit

  Purposive is choosing specific people with specific characteristics

  Opportunity is asking people who are around

  Volunteer is putting out an advert so people volunteer

  All are unrepresentative and require no sampling frame
• research methods


  12
• content analysis


  Researcher codifies & analyses a piece of work, it’s reliable and compares, two things

  It is cheap, but biased
• questionnaires- positivits


  sets of questions that gather respondents experiences, and two types are:

  Self report which is ticking boxes

  Attidinal is scaling things on, 1-5

  They are primary data, quantitative and positively prefer them as you can identify patterns and trends and put in tables easy

  advantages: cheap, quick, reliability, and no bias

  Disadvantages: lack depth incorrect feedback, if person lies, so not valid hard to analyse as open questions
• factors that influence choice of topic


  Practical – does it save time and cost?

  Accessibility – is there gatekeepers

  Organisation – government blame individual for poverty but Marxist blame capitalism

  Sociological problems – funding

  Social problems, – problems, government interested in such as crime rates
• concepts


  Sample is small number of big group to represent population

  Target population is people you want to study
• Key terms


  Operationalism is defining key terms which form basis of research such as laddism

  Bias is subjectivity
• mixed methods


  Advantage: increase validity and increase insight as primary and quantitive/qualitative data is combined, so both interpretative and positivists preferred, depending on method used
• observations


  4
• observations, general


  Advantage: observed group in natural environment and gain rich in-depth detail, which provides meaning and increases validity

  Disadvantage: need to gain access, so can be time-consuming, needs gatekeeper, costly and Hawthorn effect can occur and decreased reliability
• interviews


  3
• structured interviews


  Set questions that are closed and researcher doesn’t engage, primary data, quantitative data put into charts positivists prefer as increased reliability due to preset questions

  Advantages: increases reliability as easy to replicate and large sample size means it’s generalisable

  Disadvantages: interviewer, affect, costly time, consuming, and decreased validity
• unstructured interview


  Nor set questions in formal conversation, primary qualitative data interpretivist prefer as valid, and can gain verstehen.

  Advantages: increase validity, as can develop rapport, Interviewer can ask for more detail, so in-depth data

  Disadvantages: cannot be repeated, which means decreased reliability, small sample sizes, so less representative and is time-consuming
• semi structured interviews


  some clothes and some open ended set questions, primary data positivists prefer as not all questions are set,

  advantages: reliable, easy to analyse

  Disadvantages: time consuming to collect data and requires training of interviewer
• official statistics


  Government data statistics, secondary data, quantitative positivists prefer as you can identify patterns and trends

  Advantages: reliable, up-to-date, data that is representative, easy to access, sample size is large, so is generalisable

  Disadvantages: decrease validity, as no full picture, or meaning, concepts are operationalised by government, not sociologists
• mixed methods


  Combining quantitative and qualitative data, primary and both interpretivist and positivists preferred, depending on methods chosen

  Advantages: increases validity, due to triangulation, increases insight, due to pluralism, increases accuracy

  Disadvantages: time-consuming, expensive, complex analysis, contradictory results as various results emerge
• ethnography

  Immerse yourself into group, so you can live with participants, primary data, interpretivist prefer as can gain verstehen

  Advantages: direct observation leads to increased validity and rich data, verstehen

  Disadvantages: decreased reliability as difficult to repeat, ethical issues, time, consuming, small scale, and lacks generalisability, problems with objectivity
• Overt observation


  Participants, aware, and researcher joins in with activity, primary, interpretivists prefer

  Advantages: ethical as participants informed

  Disadvantages: bias decreased validity due to Hawthorne effect. Participants change behaviour as they know they’re being watched.
• Covert observation


  Undercover and participants unaware, primary data, interpretive vests prefer

  Advantages: increases validity

  Disadvantages: unethical as lacks consent
• Participant observation


  Researcher joins in, primary, interpretivists prefer

  Advantages: increases validity as research gains insight

  Disadvantages: Hawthorne effect/interviewer bias
• non-participant observation


  Researcher doesn’t join in, primary and interpretivist prefer

  Advantages: increases reliability

  Disadvantages: Hawthorn effect