Issues and Impact

• The world's data centres consume huge amounts of energy
• Ways to reduce the environmental impact of data centres


  1. Locate energy-hungry data centres in locations where they can use renewable energy

  2. Use 'smart lighting' that switches off lights when they are not needed
• Environmental monitoring ensures that regulations are being followed and prevents poaching and other illegal activities
• Digital footprint


  The trail of personal data that people leave behind through their online activities
• Examples of digital footprint

  • Websites visited
  • Purchases made
  • Location data from mobile devices
• Benefits of collecting and using personal data

  • Personalisation
  • Convenience
• Drawbacks of collecting and using personal data

  • Privacy not always obvious
  • Security risks of data breaches
  • Potential for discrimination
• There are ethical issues linked to the ownership of data and who can use it
• Data Protection Act 2018 (DPA)


  Legislation that regulates the collection and use of personal data and protects against misuse
• Principles of the DPA

  • Lawfulness, fairness and transparency
  • Data minimisation
  • Accuracy
  • Storage limitation
  • Integrity and confidentiality
  • Accountability
• Rights of data subjects under the DPA

  • Be informed about data collection and use
  • Access their data
  • Have inaccurate data corrected
  • Have data erased
  • Object to data processing
  • Withdraw consent
  • Restrict data processing
  • Obtain and reuse their data
• Computer Misuse Act 1990


  Legislation to prosecute cybercriminals in the UK
• Offences under the Computer Misuse Act


  • Unauthorised access to computer material
  • Unauthorised access with intent to commit further offences
  • Unauthorised access with intent to impair the running of a computer or to damage or destroy data
• The Computer Misuse Act has been updated several times since it first became law in 1990
• Cookies


  Small text files downloaded onto a user's computer when they visit a website, enabling the website to recognise the user's device and store their preferences
• The Privacy and Electronic Communications Regulations 2003 govern the use of cookies
• Artificial Intelligence (AI)


  Computer systems capable of performing tasks that typically require human intelligence, such as pattern recognition, decision making and problem solving
• Types of AI

  • Narrow AI
  • General AI
• Narrow AI

  Machine learning systems designed to perform a single task or a limited range of tasks, unable to transfer knowledge to other types of tasks
• Machine learning

  Algorithms that learn by identifying rules and patterns in data, getting progressively better at a specific task
• There is growing concern about algorithmic bias, where algorithms make decisions that discriminate against certain groups
• Malware

  Malicious software designed by hackers to gain unauthorized access to digital systems
• How malware works


  1. User clicks on attachment or link

  2. Malware infects device

  3. Malware makes copies and attaches to other programs

  4. Infected programs spread malware

  5. Malware distributes itself independently
• Trojan

  Legitimate software that users are tricked into downloading, providing hackers with access to files and a backdoor into devices
• Keylogger

  Secretly records keystrokes to extract valuable information like passwords and credit card numbers
• Growing use of smart devices in homes

  Provides opportunities for hackers to launch cyberattacks
• Internet of Things devices are often dispatched from the factory with a default password set, which hackers can use to gain access if the purchaser doesn't change it
• Types of hackers


  • Cybercriminals (black-hat hackers)
  • White-hat hackers (help organisations strengthen defences)
• Technical vulnerabilities are hardware, software or configuration flaws that allow hackers to attack
• Cyberattacks


  Attacks on digital systems
• IoT (Internet of Things) devices are dispatched from the factory with a default password set. If the purchaser does not change the password, then a hacker can gain access to the device using a simple script.
• Types of hacker


  • Black-hat hackers (cybercriminals)
  • White-hat hackers (help organisations strengthen defences)
• Malware attack


  1. Disruption of digital systems

  2. Infection of systems

  3. Stealing data
• Technical vulnerability


  Hardware, software or configuration fault that allows a hacker to attack
• Technical vulnerabilities that hackers exploit

  • Out of date software applications
  • Default admin passwords
• Zero-day vulnerability


  Newly discovered vulnerability for which no patch has been produced
• Anti-malware


  Software that detects and blocks malware
• Anti-malware software only works if its signature database is kept up to date. If that is not the case, new malware signatures will not be in its library and such malware will be missed.
• Port scanning


  Technique used by hackers to find out which software and services are being used on a computer
• Some hardware devices, such as routers, modems and servers, are shipped with factory-set admin passwords. Hackers can look up default passwords on the web and use password-hacking software to crack weak passwords.