STRUGGLE AND TRANSFORMATION IN CHINA

• 1. What were some internal divisions that the rulers of China were dealing with in the long nineteenth century?

  • Internal divisions in China during the long nineteenth century included land shortages, mismanagement by Manchu landlords, economic losses from European trade control, and tensions between various ethnic and social groups within China
• 1. Why was China subject to unequal treaties in the nineteenth century?

  • China was subject to unequal treaties in the nineteenth century due to pressure from Western powers, particularly Britain, seeking to expand trade and secure favorable terms for their merchants. These treaties were imposed on China following military defeats, such as the Opium Wars, and granted extraterritorial rights to foreign citizens, opened additional ports for trade, and imposed indemnities on China
• 1. What was the Taiping Rebellion, and how did European and American soldiers participate in it?

  • The Taiping Rebellion was a major civil war in China during the mid-nineteenth century, led by a Hong Xiuquan. European and American soldiers participated in the rebellion in various capacities: American soldiers were hired as mercenaries to fight for or against the Qing dynasty, while British and French military personnel intervened to protect their trade interests and maintain stability in the region
• 1. What was the goal of the Tongzhi Restoration?


  • to maintain confucian/old chinese traditions and values while modernization was taking place
• 1. What led the Dowager Empress and Emperor Guangxu to institute the Hundred Days' Reform?

  • The Dowager Empress and Emperor Guangxu instituted the Hundred Days' Reform in response to China's defeat in the Sino-Japanese War and the desire to modernize the country. They aimed to implement Western-style reforms to strengthen China and counter foreign influence
• 1. Explain how various economic factorscontributed to the expansion of empires from 1750 to 1900?

  • The demand for raw materials to fuel industrialization drove imperial powers to seek colonies and territories rich in resources like minerals, timber, and agricultural products
  • the need for new markets for manufactured goods led to the establishment of trade routes and ports under imperial control
  • controlling strategic locations provided access to trade routes and ensured dominance over key economic activities
• 1. China was not formally colonized during this period, except for very small regions. In what ways did it experience imperialism?

  • Despite not being formally colonized, China experienced imperialism through unequal treaties, foreign concessions in major cities, and spheres of influence where foreign powers exerted significant control over economic and political matters
• 1. Should we regard the Qing rulers, especially the Dowager Empress Cixi, as defenders of China, or as imperialists themselves? Why? Is it possible to be both?

  • The view of the Qing rulers, particularly Dowager Empress Cixi, is debated. Some see them as defenders of China, trying to maintain stability and resist foreign encroachment. Others view them as imperialists themselves, as they employed tactics similar to those of colonial powers to maintain control. It's possible for them to be seen as both, depending on the perspective and interpretation of their actions
• • Late Qing dynasty faced internal and external challenges
• • Problems in late Qing included foreign intrusion, famine, poor governance, natural disasters, and defeats against rebellions and foreign powers
• • Chinese scholars blame Qing's weak rule and internal divisions
• • Western historians see foreign influence as leading to modernization
• • Both internal and external factors contributed to China's struggles and transformation
• Opium Wars


  Fought between the British and Chinese due to British desire to expand trade networks and Chinese restriction on trade ports
• • Chinese wanted silver from Europe, while Europeans wanted products like tea, silk, and ceramics from China
• • British traders introduced opium to China, grown in British-ruled northern India, leading to addiction among Chinese population
• • Chinese economy suffered as more silver was spent on opium instead of products from China
• • Qing emperor ordered end of opium trade, leading to conflict
• • British responded with superior steam-powered warships, defeating Chinese forces
• • Treaty ending Opium Wars was devastating for Qing, losing Hong Kong and facing financial losses
• • Treaty also required China to open more ports to British ships and granted British citizens exemption from Chinese laws, leading to "unequal" treaties
• Taiping Rebellion


  Internal conflict during the same period as the Opium Wars, led by rural teacher Hong Xiuquan
• • Hong mobilized over 100,000 dissatisfied Chinese people, mainly peasants
• • Taiping Rebellion highlighted deep divisions in China, with peasants suffering from land shortages, mismanagement by Manchu landlords, and economic losses due to European control over trade
• • Hong blended Confucian and Christian beliefs, promising salvation and a better life for followers
• • Proposed reforms of taiping rebellion included forbidding the mixing of unmarried men and women and outlawing opium due to its destructive impact on families and communities
• Involvement of foreign powers in the Taiping Rebellion


  American soldiers hired as mercenaries to fight for or against the Qing, while British and French military participated to protect trade treaties
• • British and French soldiers fought to safeguard their recent trade agreements with the Qing, rather than supporting the Qing regime
• • The rebellion resulted in nearly 20 million casualties, exacerbating tensions between Chinese communities and foreign governments
• • Other challenges faced by China during this period included European intervention, misrule by the Manchu dynasty, and natural disasters leading to famines
• Rapid changes in Chinese society


  Coastal areas experienced an influx of European missionaries and merchants, while interior regions saw increased friction between rival ethnicities and beliefs
• • Despite rapid changes, many Chinese people retained traditional views and values amidst the evolving landscape
• • After losing the Opium Wars, China faced increased pressure to modernize due to the dominance of Western powers
• • Western influences flooded into coastal cities, leading to the construction of railway lines and the acquisition of advanced military weapons
• • The period from 1860 to 1874, known as the Tongzhi Restoration, saw a strengthening of traditional Chinese values alongside some modernizations
• • Empress Dowager Cixi, as regent and mother to the young Qing emperor Tongzhi, exercised significant power for almost 50 years
• • Historians have portrayed Empress Dowager Cixi in a negative light, but she oversaw both extreme strategies and positive reforms during her rule
• • Some Chinese sought modernization while preserving traditional values, which led to conflict with those advocating complete Westernization
• • Despite being in semi-retirement since 1889, Empress Dowager Cixi retained influence over the Guangxu Emperor and the court
• • In 1898, Cixi emerged from retirement to lead a coup against the Guangxu Emperor in response to the reform movement, successfully re-establishing her control
  • However, this coup fueled opposition against the Qing dynasty, paving the way for further attempts to overthrow the imperial family