Psychopathology - x

• how flooding works + ethics

  the client learns phobic stimulus is harmless via a process called extinction.

  CR is removed when CS is encountered with no UCS - no fear.

  not ethical so full informed consent must be obtained before
• cognitive characteristics of OCD


  - obsessive thoughts

  - cognitive coping strategies

  - awareness that their obsessions and compulsions are not rational
• Behavioural characteristics of depression


  - low activity levels - low energy, tired, can affect tasks such as getting out of bed

  opposite is psychomotor agitation - a person cannot relax so my pace up/down

  - disruption to sleeping or eating behaviour - may get too little or too much sleep, may eat too much or too less

  - aggression and self-harm - can become irritable and aggressive - sometimes may self harm due to anger directed towards self.
• emotional characteristics of OCD


  - anxiety and distress

  - accompanying depression

  - guilt and disgust
• emotional characteristics of depression


  - low mood - feel sad or tired

  - anger

  - low self-esteem - like themselves less
• Cognitive approach to TREATING depression - CBT - Beck


  identify thoughts of the negative triad and challenge these - tests the reality of irrational beliefs.

  - may be given homework to test beliefs e.g. record time someone was nice to them

  - 'client as a scientist' - investigating reality of beliefs like a scientist.

  - therapist can use this evidence against client in future.
• behavioural treatment of phobias - flooding


  immediate exposure to the phobic stimulus
• cognitive approach to explaining depression - Beck's negative triad


  1. faulty information processing system - focus on negative aspects and ignore positives - black and white thinking - either all is good or all is bad

  2. negative self schema - information of self is negative - view themselves in a negative way

  3. negative triad - dysfunctional view of self because of 3 things: a. negative view of world, b. negative view of future, c. negative view of self
• cognitive characteristics of depression


  - poor concentration

  - think about the negative aspects of a situation

  - black and white thinking - may see a bad situation as a disaster
• Behavioural characteristics of OCD


  - compulsions repetitive

  - compulsions reduce anxiety

  - avoidance - avoid situations which trigger anxiety
• cognitive approach to explaining depression - Ellis's ABC model


  depression results from irrational thoughts:

  A - activating event - events which trigger irrational thoughts

  B - beliefs - range of irrational beliefs --> Belief we must achieve perfection - musterbation, Belief that everything is a disaster when one thing goes wrong - 'i-can't-stand-it-itis', Belief that life is always fair - utopianism

  C - consequences - when activating event triggers irrational beliefs there is always a consequence - e.g. believing you must be good at everything - fail - depression
• Rosenhan and Seligman - signs of unable to function adequately


  - when a person can no longer conform to standard impersonal rules e.g. respecting personal space

  - when a person experiences severe personal distress

  - when a person's behaviour becomes irrational or dangerous to themselves or others
• failure to function adequately


  when a person can no longer cope with demands of everyday life. unable to maintain basic standards of hygiene and nutrition.
• DSM's categories of phobia


  - specific phobia - fear of something specific e.g. spiders, a situation- social anxiety/phobia

  - phobia of a social situation e.g. public speaking

  - agoraphobia - phobia of being outside/public pace
• Mowrer - maintenance via OC


  behaviour either continues or stops when rewarded or punished. when we avoid phobic stimuli, we escape feelings of fear and anxiety. this reduction of fear reinforces the avoidance behaviour so the phobic stimulus is maintained.
• cognitive characteristics of phobias


  - selective attention - cannot focus on anything else but the phobic stimulus

  - irrational beliefs

  - cognitive distortions - perception of unrealistic
• emotional characteristics of phobias


  - anxiety - unpleasant state of high arousal#

  - fear - unreasonable response

  - strong response to phobic stimulus
• Behavioural approach to treating phobias - SD


  Systematic desensitisation - therapy designed to reduce phobic anxiety via CC. new response to the phobic stimulus is learnt - counterconditioning.
• statistical infrequency


  statistically abnormal behaviour - behaviour which is unusual.. occupy extreme ends of normal distribution curve - above or below average - e.g. IQ 132
• Watson and Rayner - Little Albert Case Study (CC)


  9 month old had no anxiety towards white rats (NS)

  loud bang = UCS fear = UCR

  NS + UCS = UCR

  association white rat (CS) creates fear (CR)

  conditioning was generalised to other objects - whenever anything white and fluffy was shown, Albert would show signs of distress
• behavioural approach to explaining phobias - 2 process model


  Mowrer - phobias acquired via CC and are maintained via OC
• 3 processes of SD


  1. anxiety hierarchy - list put together with client and phobia arranged from most to least frightening

  2. relaxation - The therapist teaches the client to relax deeply as possible, it is impossible to be fearful and relaxed - one emotion prevents the other - reciprocal inhibition. this can be breathing exercises.

  3. exposure - the client is exposed to phobic stimuli whilst in a relaxed state. this takes place across several sessions, starting from the bottom of the list
• jahoda's ideal mental health criteria


  - positive self attitude

  - behaving independently

  - self-actualisation (strive to reach potential)

  - can cope with stress

  - having an accurate perception of reality

  - environmental mastery (can adjust to new situations/changes)
• deviation from social norms


  when a person behaves in a way different from how we are expected to behave. (different from social norms)
• deviation from ideal mental health


  when someone does not meet standards of ideal mental health
• behavioural characteristics of phobias


  - panic - crying, screaming, running away

  - avoidance - avoiding stimulus

  - endurance - enduring stimulus
• cognitive approach to TREATING depression - Ellis's REBT


  rational emotive behaviour therapy extends the ABC model to ABCDE - activating events, beliefs, consequences, disputes, effect

  The therapist will dispute the patient's irrational beliefs, and replace them with effective beliefs and attitudes. may also get homework to challenge beliefs

  patient identifies irrational beliefs and proves them wrong - belief begins to change

  behavioural activation - decrease avoidance and isolation
• Biological approach to explaining OCD - genetics


  - Candidate genes - create OCD vulnerability, involved in regulating the development of serotonin - 5TH1-beta

  - OCD as polygenic - vulnerability caused by a combination of gene variations - up to 230 genes

  - aetiologically heterogeneous - a group of genes involved in OCD may vary from one person to another
• 4 definitions of abnormality


  - statistical infrequency

  - deviation from social norms

  - failure to function adequately

  - deviation from ideal mental health
• Biological approach to explaining OCD - Lewis 1936


  observed OCD patients - 37% had parents with OCD and 21% had siblings with OCD.

  suggests OCD runs in the family but it is the genetic vulnerability of OCD, not the certainty

  diathesis-stress model
• biological explanation of OCD - neural


  - serotonin helps regulate mood - low levels = low mood - OCD can be explained by a reduction in the functioning of serotonin system in the brain

  - abnormal functioning with the lateral parts of the frontal lobe - responsible for decision-making and logical thinking - can explain hoarding

  - abnormal functioning of parahippocampal gyrus - processes unpleasant emotions
• Biological approach to treating OCD - SSRI


  antidepressant - selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor

  SSRI increase levels of serotonin by preventing reuptake and breakdown of serotonin during synaptic transmission
• SSRI - example, dosage ect.

  Prozac - 20mg

  requires daily intake for 3 - 4 months for SSRI to have impact on symptoms

  can be taken via capsules of liquid
• Biological approach to treating OCD - combination


  drug can be taken with CBT.

  drugs reduce emotional symptoms - can engage with CBT
• Biological approach to treating OCD - alternatives


  dosage can increase after 3 - 4 months if not effective

  - Tricyclics - such as clomipramine - same effect as SSRIs but have sever side effects

  - SNRI (selective noradrenaline reuptake inhibitors) - increase levels of serotonin and noradrenaline.