Modern Medicine

    Cards (21)

    • How did understanding of genetics improve?
      - Mendel showed how human characteristic could be passed between generations (19th century)

      - New technology in the 20th century let scientists analyse human cells in detail. They found that each cell contained DNA

      - James Watson and Francis Crick worked together to find out how the genetic codes of DNA fit together

      - They analysed X-rays by Maurice Wilkins and Rosalind Franklin and worked out the double helix structure of DNA in 1953

      - In 1990, Watson led the Human Genome Project and started identifying and mapping genes
    • What possibilities arose from understanding DNA?
      - better understanding of genetic conditions
      - predicting whether individuals are at higher risk of developing cancers
      - discovery that stem cells can grow into different cells
    • What are things that have not been discovered yet for DNA?
      - cure or effective treatments for most genetic conditions
      - ways to prevent genetic diseases
    • Understanding of lifestyle factors
      - Smoking: research began to link smoking with diseases (cancers, high blood pressure..)
      - Drinking alcohol: research links drinking alcohol to diseases
      - Diet: research confirmed that eating a balanced diet reduces risk of cancers and heart disease
    • What improvements have there been in diagnosis?
      - Use of labs to test skin or blood
      - X-rays, scans and endoscopes to see inside the body
      - Monitors to see what is going on in a period of time
    • New technology in 20th and 21st century medicine
      - Microscopes
      - Incubators
      - X-rays
      - Prosthetics
      - MRI, CT, ultrasounds
      - Endoscopes
      - Pacemakers
      - Dialysis machines
      - Insulin pumps
      - Blood pressure/sugar monitor
      - Hypodermic needles
    • Magic bullets
      - Koch discovered that different dyes stained specific microbes
      = Behring discovered that the body manufactures antitoxins that attack disease causing microbes

      - Ehrlich and a team of researchers search for a 'magic bullet' . This would be a chemical compound that attacked and killed microbes that caused disease

      - The team worked for many years, testing many compounds to find one to cure syphilis

      - 1909, Dr Hata joined the team and discovered that the 606th compound worked (one that had been previously rejected)

      - 1932, Gerhard Domagk developed another magic bullet (Prontosil) which cured blood poisoning

      - It was later discovered that the main ingredient in Prontosil also cured pneumonia, scarlet fever and meningitis
    • Use of antibiotics
      - Antibiotics destroy bacteria or prevent its growth. The first one that was discovered was penicillin

      - Scientists experimented with other moulds and found more effective antibiotics against different diseases

      - Once the chemical structure of different antibiotics was discovered, scientists were able to make antibiotics which solved the problem of growing them

      - Antibiotics have saved and extended millions of lives, but some bacteria have evolved and become resistant to antibiotics
    • What is keyhole/microsurgery surgery?
      Surgeons can use small incisions to access the body because of the development of tiny cameras. This reduces recovery time and make it possible to reattach nerves and blood vessels
    • What is robotic surgery?
      Some surgery can be carried out remotely, with surgeons controlling robots through computers.

      This makes surgery more precise.
    • When was the NHS founded?
      1948
    • What healthcare does the NHS provide?
      - GPs
      - Hospital care and operation
      - Health visitors for pregnant women and young children
      - Ambulances
      - Health care for the elderly
    • How has access to care improved?
      The NHS has improved access to care because treatment is free. However, when it was first introduced, healthcare provision was unequal across the country due to a lack of doctors and hospitals, but this improved over time.
    • Compulsory vaccinations
      - 1942 Diptheria
      - 1950, Whooping Cough and Polio
      - 1961, Tetanus
      - 1962, Measles
      - 1970, Rubella
      - 1988, MMR
      - 2008, HPV
    • Prevention measures
      Since 1948, the government has taken more action to prevent people getting ill.

      - Funding more testing and vaccinations.
      - Better disposal of rubbish and sewage.
      - Laws reducing air and water pollution.
      - Laws banning the advertising of cigarettes and smoking in public places.
      - Laws improving health and safety at work.
      - Environmental health officers inspecting food outlets.
    • Lifestyle campaigns
      Since 1948, the government has funded publicity to raise awareness of illnesses and dangers to health, such as smoking and binge-drinking, with some success: the 1980s 'AIDS: don't die of ignorance' campaign reduced cases of HIV infection.

      More recently, events and initiatives such as the Change4Life campaign, have encouraged healthy behaviour to prevent disease.
    • How was penicillin discovered?
      - In 1928, Alexander Fleming noticed that bacteria in a Petri dish was being killed by Penicillium mould. He then tested it on other bacteria and produced an excellent antibiotic

      - In 1929, Fleming published his findings but didn't believe that penicillin would work on people, so didn't ask for funding to continue research

      - Years later, Florey and Chain and their team continued Fleming's research

      - It proved effective on mice, so they tested it on humans.
    • Mass production of penicillin
      - In 1941, some US companies agreed to produce penicillin on a small scale

      - The effectiveness of penicillin was demonstrated

      - After the US joined WW2, the government saw the need for penicillin and funded 21 companies for the mass production of it

      - US companies mass produced penicillin in 1942, British drug companies did so in 1943
    • Diagnosis of lung cancer
      Symptoms of lung cancer include:
      - persistent cough
      - coughing up blood
      - breathlessness
      - tiredness
      - rapid weight loss
      - repeated chest infections

      If lung cancer is suspected, patients are given a CT scan and if a mass is shown, a sample of cells is tested
    • Treatment of lung cancer
      - Surgery to remove the tumour or carry out transplant
      - Radiotherapy to try to shrink the tumour/prevent growth
      - Chemotherapy to try to shrink the tumour or prevent the cancer returning
    • Prevention of lung cancer
      - TV adverts for cigarettes were banned in 1965
      - Adverts for cigars and tobacco banned in 1991
      - Tax on tobacco products is increased to make smoking expensive
      - In 2007, smoking was banned in public places of work, this was extended in 2015 to cars with under 18s
      - In 2007, the legal age was changed to 18
      - Various campaigns to educate people about the risks of smoking
      - Shops cannot display tobacco products
      - Cigarette packaging is now sold with graphic warnings
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