unit one - psychology atar year 11

• Nervous system


  Divided into central nervous system (CNS) and peripheral nervous system (PNS)
• Central nervous system (CNS)


  Consists of the brain and spinal cord
• Peripheral nervous system (PNS)


  Consists of the somatic and autonomic nervous systems
• Branches of the autonomic nervous system

  • Sympathetic
  • Parasympathetic
• Neurons


  Nerve cells with structures including dendrites, soma/cell body, axon, axon terminals, and a myelin sheath
• Neural transmission


  1. Direction of transmission

  2. Electrochemical signals

  3. Role of synapses and neurotransmitters
• Brain


  • Divided into hindbrain, midbrain, forebrain, and cerebral cortex
  • Specific regions like the medulla, cerebellum, hypothalamus, thalamus, and lobes like frontal, parietal, temporal, and occipital
• Localisation of functions in the brain


  Specific functions are localised to certain areas of the brain, such as Broca's area, Wernicke's area, pre-frontal cortex, primary motor cortex, primary sensory cortex, primary auditory cortex, and primary visual cortex
• Phineas Gage's case study illustrated the localisation of lobe function in the brain
• Roger Sperry is known for studying the role of the corpus callosum using split-brain experiments
• Walter Freeman studied the role of the pre-frontal cortex using frontal lobotomy
• Contemporary methods in psychology

  EEG, CT, MRI, and fMRI are used to enhance understanding of brain structure and function
• Lifespan Psychology


  The study of human development and aging prenatal stages to older age
• Developmental stages


  • Prenatal
  • Infancy
  • Childhood
  • Adolescence
  • Early Adulthood
  • Age
  • Older Age
• Physical changes


  • Gross Motor Skills
  • Fine Motor Skills
• Cognitive changes


  Alterations in thinking and learning abilities during development
• Brain plasticity


  The brain's ability to change and adapt in response to new experiences
• Synaptic pruning


  The process of eliminating unnecessary connections between brain cells
• Myelination


  The insulation of nerve fibers, which helps improve the speed and efficiency of nerve signal transmission
• Piaget's Theory of Cognitive Development


  A theory proposing that children progress through stages of cognitive development, including Sensorimotor, Pre-Operational, Concrete Operational, and Formal Operational stages
• Sensorimotor Stage


  A stage where children use senses and motor skills to understand the world, including developing object permanence
• Attachment Theory


  A theory suggesting that children form a crucial bond with primary caregivers for healthy social and emotional growth
• Harlow's Attachment Study with Rhesus Monkeys (1958) demonstrated that monkeys preferred comfort from their mother over a wire mother with food, emphasizing the importance of emotional connection
• Evolutionary Perspective (Bowlby, 1969)


  Views attachment as an evolutionary adaptation promoting children's survival by fostering closeness and dependency on caregivers
• Internal Working Model (Bowlby, 1988)


  A mental representation of one's attachment experiences and relationships with others
• Strange Situation Test (Ainsworth, 1978)

  To assess attachment security in children
• Cross-Cultural Patterns of Attachment (van Ijzendoorn and Kroonenberg, 1988)

  Similar patterns of attachment found across different cultures
• Ethical guidelines must be followed to ensure the protection of human participants in psychological research
• Ethical guidelines must be followed to ensure the humane treatment of animals in research
• Enriched and deprived environments

  Effects of environmental factors like poverty, nutrition, and education on child development
• Key ethical considerations for research involving human participants

  • Protection from harm
  • Informed consent
  • Withdrawal rights
  • No deception
  • Confidentiality
  • Voluntary participation
  • Debriefing
• 3Rs principle in animal research

  Replacement, Reduction, Refinement - methods to minimize the use of animals in research and improve their welfare
• Formulating research aims


  Clearly defining the purpose or aim of the research
• Constructing a hypothesis


  Formulating a hypothesis or inquiry question based on the research question
• Types of research designs

  • Experimental
  • Non-experimental
  • Observational
  • Case study
  • Correlational
  • Longitudinal
  • Cross-sectional
• Researchers use random allocation in participant selection
• Experimenter effect


  The researcher's presence or behavior can influence the study's outcome
• Demand characteristics


  Participants' responses may be swayed by their expectations of the study
• Minimizing effects of extraneous and confounding variables


  Through random allocation of participants and single-blind procedures, as well as standardization of procedures and instructions
• Qualitative data


  Involves descriptions and characteristics