Section One

• Britain and Egypt


  In 1857, Egypt fell under British control, but it had been a significant route for British trade for centuries. British interest in Egypt was revived during the American Civil War, as British mills were starved of raw cotton. Egyptian cotton was a valuable raw material, and British companies invested heavily in Egyptian cotton production. By 1870, around 40% of Egypt's imports came from Britain.
• Exploring Africa in the Victorian Imagination

  Colonial mapping capitalised on Victorian curiosity for adventure stories and contained concerns about the "Dark Continent." European explorers charted the Sahara, lower Niger River, southern Africa, and Zambezi River. Burton and Speke's expeditions between 1857 and 1868 recorded the Upper Nile's source, facilitating colonial advancements and resource exploitation.
• Reasons for British Expansion into Africa: "Moral Factors"


  Christian Missionaries tried to spread their faith to non christians "heathens".They believed that their empire was "a force for civilisation"
• Reasons for British Expansion into Africa: Exploration

  By 1857, most of Africa had been included in European maps due to expeditions conducted to map the continent.
• Reasons for British Expansion into Africa: Personal influence

  The rise in trade led to the personal influence of merchants, particularly Cecil Rhodes, who capitalised on African resources, becoming wealthy and famous, as Africa was first "discovered."
• Reasons for British Expansion into Africa: Strategic Factors

  The British sought protection for the West coast, building forts and coastal defences in Sierra Leone and Gambia. In 1806, during the Napoleonic Wars, Britain seized Cape Colony from Dutch allies, gaining more power and securing trade routes to India, China, Australia, and Asia.
• Reasons for British Expansion into Africa: Trade and the Economy

  The British primarily traded with West Africa to acquire gold and ivory from elephant tusks. After the 18th century, the Slave trade was outlawed, leading to the exportation of over 3 million Africans to America or the Caribbean. This expansion allowed the British to exploit resources, creating a dependency cycle during the Great Depression.
• The Berlin Conference 1884-1885


  European leaders convened at the Berlin Conference of 1884-85, hosted by German Chancellor Otto Von Bismarch, to agree on claims to African territories. Despite attempts to consider African communities' wishes and differences in race, language, culture, and traditions, European nations continued their "Scramble for Africa," ignoring the needs and differences of African communities.
• The Expansion of the British Empire

  Africa failed to realise how advanced Europe had become in industry, weapons and medicine. They had steamships, railway, telegraph and they acquired an antidote against malaria. The british empire was looking for new products, resources, valuable material and minerals.
• The loss of the colonies

  After the loss of the British colonies in America the empire decided to "Swing to the East" looking for influence in Asia and Africa. Because of the industrial revolution it made it easier to have a foothold in these continents
• the swing to the east

  Vincent Harlow, a prominent British historian in the early Twentieth Century, introduced the concept of “Swing to the East '' to explain the shift in Britain's imperial priorities by the 19th Century. While historians now recognise continued interest in British North America and the Caribbean Harlow emphasised particularly a change in British business and Political interests away from the Western Hemisphere towards both Africa and Asia. This outlook marked a desire for control through trade and economic dominance rather than settler colonisation
• trade and economy


  The British primarily traded with West Africa to acquire gold and ivory from elephant tusks. The Slave trade was outlawed in 1807, leading to the forced exportation of over 3 million Africans to America or the Caribbean. This expansion allowed the British to discover new resources and safeguard investments through colonial intervention. The British relied on African materials for their industry, creating a dependency cycle during the Great Depression.
• “Morality” and Empire


  Historians argue that the first half of the 19th century saw a shift in British Middle class perception of the world, with a strong sense of morality dividing it into good and evil. This belief system was reflected in Charles Dickens' novels, where characters were either good or evil and faced consequences. This rigid belief system also extended to the wider world.
• General Act: Created at Berlin conference 1884-85


  The act granted free trade in the Congo basin and its outlets to all African countries, ensuring protection of indigenous people, suppression of slave trade, and support for religious, scientific, and charitable endeavors. If any power took land on Africa's coasts, they were required to notify the signatories of the act. This conference successfully maintained European relationships and allowed many countries to expand their empires without issues.
• Imperial and Colonial Policy

  The British government, led by William Pitt, makes police decisions, with most cabinet ministers serving less than two years. The Colonial office was established in 1801. The number of offices increased significantly, with a separate Indian office established in 1858. The first census in 1871 revealed 236 million people living under British rule or in treaties, with a larger Indian army and government.
• India's Defence


  The 1857 mutiny threatened British lives and investments. The Indian army was strengthened in 1858, with 125,000 natives and 125,000 British by 1880. Many Gurkhas and Sikhs were loyal to the British, leading to increased British troop numbers. Britain was too controlling of India more and denied ranks to Indian soldiers.
• Informal Empire


  During the 19th century, Britain expanded to South America, particularly Chile and Argentina, accounting for 10% of its exports and imports. The informal empire used threats and force for acquisitions, such as Mexico in 1861, to uphold trade treaties and maintain access. The navy ensured compliance in Peru and Chile in 1875 and 1863. The Chinese Empire also made concessions to Britain.
• The Brussels Conference 1876

  Africans were incapable of developing the natural resources to be found in central Africa. The routes to Africa's great lakes needed to be developed by bulding roads or railways. An international African Association should be established to coordinate the European's efforts
• The Government of India Act 1858

  The East India Company's territories were transferred to Queen Victoria, and the company ceased to exist. A Cabinet post was created as Secretary of State for India, and 15 Indian council members were appointed. Queen Victoria was made empress on January 1, 1877.
• Agriculture : ch 3

  Most colonial economies were agricultural, with the exception of India, which had some small-scale industrial development. Farmers from indigenous populations were often forced to sell at low prices. Plantations were run by the British, with Indian labourers transported to Caribbean colonies for fixed periods in return for their transport. Plantations were for various products, such as sisal, coffee, tea, tea, sugar, rubber, palm oil, coconuts, and sugar. Indentured workers were often paid low wages for hard, unpleasant work.
• Britain, the world foremost trading nation

  By 1857, Britain was the world's most industrially advanced country, producing heavy iron goods and textiles for a global market. Urbanisation increased its reliance on overseas imports, making Britain the world's largest consumer market for food and raw materials. Tropical goods, minerals, wool, raw cotton, timber, and wheat were imported from Australia, India, and Canada. Industrial Britain lent to its colonies to feed and provide for its workforce.
• Canals and rivers


  Internal river systems were crucial for transporting trading products and were often explored by explorers. Rivers were often straightened, diverted, and deepened to facilitate trade, causing ecological effects. Canals were built to avoid hazardous water stretches or provide waterways where none existed. For instance, in India, new canals were developed after 1857, while in Canada, canals were deepened around the St Lawrence/Great Lakes seaway system and the Welland Canal was built to overcome height differences between Lakes Eyrie and Ontario.
• Clipper ships


  Clipper ships experienced a boom in 1843 due to the Treaty of Nanking and increasing demand for tea from China, but their dominance was short-lived and declined rapidly after the opening of the Suez Canal in 1869.
• Indian Tea


  Tea, a renowned Indian crop, gained popularity in the 1840s after being imported from China. Following the Indian Rebellion of 1857, Britons expanded the tea trade by establishing plantations in Coonoor, Ceylon, and Kerala. Tea became the cheapest and most popular drink among Britons by the end of the 19th century.
• Industry


  The development of industry in the colonies was limited due to their small internal markets and inability to compete with British manufacture. For instance, Indian textile industry was destroyed due to inability to compete with imported British textiles. The impact of the British trade and commerce system on the peoples of the Empire remains debated, with undeveloped areas being influenced by British capital and technology but also hindered by British control and exploitation.
• Mining


  European expansion was driven by the desire to exploit precious metals, which became an important trading commodity. Tin in Nigeria, gold along the Gold Coast, and diamonds in Sierra Leone contributed to the development of colonies. European discoveries in central and south Africa, such as copper and gold, further fuelled colonial growth. The discovery of gold in South Africa in 1886 sparked a gold rush to the Dutch-Boer republic of the Transvaal. The discovery of diamonds further fueled British ambitions, leading to the formation of the Kimberley Diamond syndicate in 1890.
• railways


  British railway imperialism was a significant aspect of the British Empire's economic development, construction of railways ensured British control. The British provided investment, engineers, and rolling stock could be used to pressurise governments. Canada was forced to accept British policies on defense due to the price of London capital. However, railways also encroached upon indigenous lands, disrupted ecosystems, and often led to the displacement and forced removal of indigenous peoples. Railways provided a vital link between interior production areas and the sea.
• Ships and Shipping


  In the 1860s, sailing ships reached peak efficiency, with clippers sailing worldwide for low-volume goods like tea, opium, and spices. However, they had short life expectancies and needed to be broken up after 20 years. Steamships were used for bulky goods, and the compound steam engine in the 1850s made them more efficient. The opening of the Suez Canal in 1869 and the development of the triple expansion steam engine in the 1870s further stimulated steam carrier construction.
• The infrastructure of trade

  British capital and technology were utilised to enhance the Empire's trade infrastructure and maximise profits. Efficient cargo ships were built, ports and harbours were extended, and railway systems were developed. River transport and canals were also extended to make internal transport faster and more cost-effective. These measures aimed to minimise delays and improve the efficiency of goods transportation to ports.
• The role of the chartered companies

  Chartered companies were traditional means of organising trade in the colonies until mid-1850s. The government allowed trading to progress at its own pace, competition was a sign of capitalism. In the 1870s, Britain faced challenges from European and American industrialisation and the Long Depression, leading to the revival of chartered companies to extend British trade and control. The primary purpose of trading companies was to generate profit for shareholders in Britain, often leading to exploitation of local peoples and environments.
• Trade and Commerce 


  The Empire's expansion from 1857 to 1890 was a significant part of its growth, driven by new theories of free trade in the 19th century. This approach, known as the 'imperialism of free trade', allowed Britain to expand wealth without commercial restrictions, resulting in an 'industrial empire'. The colonies provided food and raw materials for British industry, and the City of London became the world's financial capital. Technological advancements in railways, steamships, underwater cables, and telegraph lines further supported this growth.
• Attitudes to Empire the role and influence of individuals 

  The British Empire expanded from 1857 in a piecemeal manner, driven by British individuals seeking opportunities overseas. They sought scientific impulse, moral compunction, wealth, and status in imperial administrative posts. Small settlements attracted traders, explorers, missionaries, and ambitious administrators. Individuals played a significant role in Britain's imperial growth and global cultural extension.
• Cecil Rhodes


  Cecil Rhodes, a diamond magnate and Cape Colony politician, played a significant role in British expansion in South Africa. He controlled a large area of Africa, initially known as 'South Zambesia', but did not annex the Bechuanaland Protectorate. Rhodes' moral ambitions reflected Victorian confidence and arrogance, believing humans were the best race and that more inhabiting them would benefit them. Although not widely accepted, his racist views were widely shared, justifying the Empire's expansion.
• David Livingstone


  David Livingstone, a renowned Victorian explorer, began his missionary journey in South Africa in 1841. He explored uncharted territories and conducted lectures at Cambridge University. In 1858, he returned to Africa to explore the Zambezi River with a team of Africans, Indians, and enslaved people. His 2000 letters to Britain and journey to find the Nile source were published. His disappearance and rediscovery by Henry Stanley in 1871 solidified his reputation as a martyr for Africa and the Empire.
• Georg


  George Goldie, a British colonial administrator, bought a palm oil business in the Niger basin in 1875, which became an industrial lubricant, candle, and soap constituent. He formed the Central African Trading Company and later formed the United African Company in 1879. Goldie's success was largely due to over 450 local treaty arrangements, which transferred territory and jurisdiction to the United African Company. Britain asserted its right to proclaim a protectorate over northern and southern Niger at the Berlin Conference.
• John Hanning Speke


  John Hanning Speke, a British explorer, joined Richard Burton's Somaliland expedition in 1855. After being wounded, he rejoined in 1857 to find the Nile's origin. They became the first Europeans to reach Lake Tanganyika in 1858. Speke mapped Lake Victoria in 1860 and informed Baker's group of another lake, Lake Albert. His accounts were published in 1863 and 1864. Speke was killed by his own gun before the debate occured
• John Kirk


  John Kirk, a Scottish physician, was a pioneer in botany and colonial history. He served as chief medical officer and economic botanist for Livingstone's Zambezi expedition, exploring waterways and collecting aquatic specimens. In 1868, Kirk returned to Africa as medical officer and Vice-Consul in Zanzibar, ensuring its operation as a British client state, outlawing slave trade, and promoting commerce with British aid.
• Sir Evelyn Baring


  Evelyn Baring, Earl of Cromer, was a Victorian colonial administrator known for his efficiency and arrogance. He served as private secretary to Lord Northbrook, Viceroy of India, and later helped Isma'il Pasha out of financial difficulties. Baring returned to Britain and became Consul-General in Egypt, where he approved the Dufferin Report and established an Egyptian puppet parliament. Bartle Frere, on the other hand, began his career in the Indian Civil Service and was appointed High Commissioner and Governor of Cape Colony.
• Sir Richard Burton


  Sir Richard Burton was a renowned linguistic scholar, explorer, and adventurer known for his stories of Muslim life and manners. He visited sacred Islamic cities like Mecca and discovered Lake Victoria, believed to be the Nile's source. Despite being wounded in Somaliland, Burton continued his expeditions and published 43 volumes, including five books on tribal rituals in West Africa and 30 volumes of translations and essays.
• Sir William Mackinnon

  Sir William Mackinnon, a Scottish ship-owner and businessman, established significant commercial interests in the coasting trade around the Bay of Bengal. He founded the Calcutta and Burma Steam Navigation Company, which later became the British India Steam Navigation Company. Mackinnon also founded the Imperial British East Africa Company, which was bankrupted. In 1891, he founded the Free Church of Scotland East African Scottish Mission in Kenya.