Gender

• Sex


  Biological status (innate)
• Gender


  Psychosocial status (nurture)
• Biological sex is innate and cannot be changed. But gender is assigned and partly determined by nurture (fluid), eg being masculine or feminine depends on social context.
• Gender dysphoria


  Where sex and gender do not correspond
• For most people their biological sex and gender identity correspond. However, some people experience gender dysphoria when their biological sex does not reflect the way they feel inside and the gender they identify themselves as being.
• Gender reassignment surgery allows people to bring their sexual identity in line with their gender identity.
• Sex-role stereotypes


  Social expectations regarding how males and females should behave
• Sex-role stereotypes are shared by a culture or social group and consist of expectations regarding how males and females should behave. These expectations are transmitted through a society and reinforced by members of it (e.g. parents, peers, etc.).
• Some sex-role stereotypes have some basis in reality, but there is no biological reason for them. Many sex-role stereotypes are incorrect assumptions and can lead to sexist and damaging attitudes.
• Research confirms sex-role stereotypes in the media. A study of TV adverts found men were more likely to be shown in autonomous roles in professional contexts, whereas women were seen occupying familial roles in domestic settings. This along with other studies demonstrates both the existence of sex-role stereotypes and the role the media has in reinforcing them.
• Masculine items


  Dominant, competitive, athletic
• Feminine items


  Gentle, affectionate, sympathetic
• Neutral items


  Characteristics which do not apply more specifically to one sex than another, including sincere, friendly and unpredictable
• Androgynous categorisation


  High score on both masculine and feminine scales
• Undifferentiated categorisation


  Low score on both the masculine and feminine scales
• Androgyny


  A balance of masculine and feminine characteristics
• Androgyny is a positive attribute. Individuals who have a balance of masculine and feminine traits are better equipped to adapt to a range of situations.
• Bem Sex Role Inventory (BSRI)


  Measures androgyny quantitatively
• The BSRI has been found to be both valid and reliable when it was developed.
• Stereotypical ideas of masculinity and femininity have changed since the BSRI was developed 40 years ago. Also, it was devised by a panel who were all from the US, suggesting the BSRI may lack temporal validity and be culturally biased and not a suitable measure of gender identity today.
• One limitation of the BSRI is that people may lack insight into their gender identity. Gender is a social construct which may be more open to interpretation than sex (which is a biological fact). Furthermore, the questionnaire's scoring system is subjective and people's application of the 7-point scale may differ.
• Chromosomes


  Determine biological sex (XX=female, XY=male)
• Testosterone


  Key role in male development and aggression
• Estrogen


  Key role in female development and behaviour
• Testosterone controls the development of male sex organs before birth. If a genetic male produces no testosterone, then no male sex organs appear. If a genetic female produces high levels of testosterone then male sex organs may appear.
• High levels of testosterone are linked to aggression because such behaviour is adaptive for males, e.g. for competing with other males to mate with a fertile female and also for hunting (while females tend children).
• Estrogen controls female sexual characteristics including menstruation. During the menstrual cycle some women experience heightened emotionality and irritability-premenstrual tension or premenstrual syndrome (a diagnosable disorder). In extreme cases PMS has been used (controversially as a defence for violent behaviour in women).
• Women typically produce oxytocin in larger amounts than men. Oxytocin stimulates lactation post-birth, reduces the stress hormone cortisol, and facilitates bonding. This may explain why females are more interested in intimacy in relationships than men-though amounts are the same in men and women when kissing and during sex.
• One strength of the biological evidence is that studies show testosterone replacement therapy improves sexual function, libido and mood, and significantly increases muscle strength in men with low testosterone levels.
• One limitation of biological accounts is that they ignore social factors. Countries that value competition and independence above community (individualist cultures) e.g. US and UK, are more 'masculine', and masculine traits more valued than in collectivist cultures. This challenges biological explanations of gender behaviour and suggests social factors may ultimately be more important in shaping gender behaviour and attitudes.
• Another limitation is that biological explanations are reductionist. Accounts that reduce gender to the level of chromosomes and hormones exclude alternative explanations such as cognitive and psychodynamic factors.
• Klinefelter's syndrome


  XXY chromosomal structure in biological males
• Klinefelter's syndrome


  • Reduced body hair, some breast development, underdeveloped genitals, more susceptible to health problems usually associated with females, poorly developed language skills and reading ability, passive, shy and lacking interest in sexual activity, tend not to respond well to stressful situations
• Klinefelter's syndrome


  Condition where biological males have an additional X chromosome
• About 1 in 600 males have Klinefelter's syndrome
• 10% of cases are identified prenatally but up to 66% may not be aware of it. Diagnosis often comes about accidentally via medical examination for some unrelated condition.
• Physical characteristics of Klinefelter's syndrome

  • Lack of body hair
  • Some breast development at puberty (gynaecomastia)
  • Underdeveloped genitals
  • More susceptible to health problems that are usually associated with females, such as breast cancer
• Psychological characteristics of Klinefelter's syndrome

  • Poorly developed language skills and reading ability
  • Passive, shy and lacking interest in sexual activity
  • Tend not to respond well to stressful situations
  • Problems with what are called executive functions, such as problem-solving
• Turner's syndrome


  Condition caused by an absence of one of the two X chromosomes leading to 45 rather than 46 chromosomes
• 1 in 5000 females have Turner's syndrome