resource security

• Resource


  Any type of asset, commodity or item which has value to enhance the quality of human life or help it function more effectively
• Resource types


  • Stock resources (finite and will run out eventually)
  • Flow resources (infinite and can be replenished and renewed)
• Natural resources


  Those that exist without human intervention and can include stock and flow resources
• Resource exploration


  1. Inferred (economic viability uncertain)

  2. Possible (expected that inferred resource could become indicated with further exploration)

  3. Indicated (conditions and location of resource can be predicted to allow initial planning)

  4. Measured (detailed mine planning possible)

  
• Grade of deposit


  Percentage quantity of desired resource in all the material that is being exploited
• Exploration


  The process of searching for available resources and then upgrading the resource from inferred to measured if appropriate
• Exploitation


  The process of extracting the material from the ground and its use is dependent on the economic viability of a resource
• Resource frontier


  The boundary between exploited areas and areas considered too difficult to exploit under current political and technological conditions
• Resource peak


  The amount of the resource being extracted will vary over time but usually follows a long-term trend known as 'Hubbert's Curve' - production increases exponentially until it peaks around halfway through available resources and is followed by decreasing production
• Not all production follows the Hubbert's Curve precisely, as demonstrated by the graph showing US crude oil production. However, on a global scale, the production will follow the bell-shaped curve

  
• It is predicted that in 2030, peak oil will occur
• Factors affecting the time of peak production

  • Availability and discovery of reserves
  • Development of new technologies
  • Demand for the resource
  • Grade of available resources
• Sustainable resource development


  Involves long-term planning that ensures extraction does not increase too quickly or rise to unsustainable levels, and protects workers in the future when the resource can no longer be exploited
• Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA)

  Used to assess the possible environmental impacts of a resource development project and should be completed before the project is approved
• What an EIA should include

  • Project description
  • Consideration of alternatives
  • Description of the environment
  • Environmental impacts of the project
  • Mitigation of potential issues and monitoring strategies
  • Non-technical summary to be understandable by the general public
  • Areas for further research into the potential impacts, where there are gaps in current knowledge
• Mineral


  A naturally occurring compound formed by chemical processes, not organic
• Mineral distribution


  Minerals are often found in veins in rock, most commonly in igneous rock, but also in some metamorphic rock. Some minerals such as diamond need intense heat to form so only form on cratons (old sections of continental crust which extend deep into the lithosphere)

  
• Technological advances and the development of LIC countries has increased the global demand for resources and changed trading patterns
• Contents of the Resource Security Case Study Pack

  • 2 x energy resource case study
  • 1 x TNC and its impacts as a result of energy development
  • 1x sustainability issues with a mineral resource case study
  • 1 x mineral resource case study
  • 2 x water resource case study
  • 3x water conflicts at different scales case study - local, national, international
  • 2 x energy mix in a country - LIC and HIC
• Historically the USA and Europe were the largest manufacturers of minerals, but due to comparative labour costs and globalisation, this is no longer true
• Energy Resource Frontier


  Alaskan North Slope
• Alaskan North Slope


  • Alaska's North Slope has extensive oil deposits
  • Development of the North Slope oil reserves began in the 1960s. The area now has 20 oil fields, covering over 2500 km squared. In the 1980s, they produced over 720,000,000 barrels of crude oil every year
  • Infrastructure has been created to support the oil fields: Over 800 km of roads, 20 airports, 3000 km of pipes, 2 refineries, Trans-Alaska oil pipeline
• Strategies to reduce environmental impacts of mineral resource projects

  • Extraction: Water sprayed on mine roads to reduce toxic dust, choosing not to mine environmentally sensitive areas, on-site processing reduces emissions of transportation
  • Transport: Driverless trains and trucks, increasing capacity of ships and using more efficient fuels
  • Processing: New carbon neutral processes, improving efficiency, powering plants by solar
  • Site restoration: Planting trees and restoring environment, stabilising overburden and tailings
  • Recycling: Copper and aluminium widely recycled, increasing recycling reduces demands on mines
• Trans-Alaska oil pipeline


  Transports oil from Prudhoe Bay to Valdez in the south of Alaska - from there, it is shipped to other parts of the world
• Mining companies work with community projects, governments and train workers after a mine closes to ensure economic, social and political sustainability
• Water security


  Global renewable internal freshwater resources per capita have decreased from 13,206 in 1962 to 5,925 in 2014, and water demand is predicted to increase up to 55% by 2050
• Environmental impacts of oil fields

  • Fragile tundra habitats destroyed by development
  • Offshore drilling disturbs marine creatures
  • Over 60,000 tonnes of nitrous oxides released into the air every year
  • Oil and natural gas extraction releases greenhouse gases
  • Groundwater brought to surface contains salt, oil and other chemicals
  • Freshwater pumped from lakes reduces amount available for animals
• Water stress


  Demand exceeds the available amount of clean, non-polluted water during a certain period, leading to over-exploitation of long-term water stores and decreasing water quality
• Environmental impacts of distribution networks

  • Pipelines can leak and damage environment
  • Oil spills from ships can damage marine ecosystems
  • Dust from roads can settle on vegetation
• 66% of the world's population only have access to 25% of the world's annual rainfall, and conflict can further limit accessibility to water sources

  
• Major Energy Source Development

  Athabasca tar sands
• Reasons for increasing water demand

  • Population growth
  • Socio-economic factors (growing middle class)
  • Development (greater demand in industry and agriculture)
• Athabasca tar sands


  • Located in Alberta, Canada, under 141,000 square kilometres of boreal forest and peat bogs
  • The Alberta tar sands are the largest oil reserves on the planet outside of Saudi Arabia
  • As conventional sources of oil are depleted, companies have to turn to unconventional sources such as bitumen found in tar sands
  • The sands are predicted to contain 175 billion barrels of recoverable bitumen oil
  • More than 1 million barrels of crude oil flow out of Alberta's oil sand plants every day
• Reasons for supply not meeting demand

  • Aquifers being over-exploited
  • Water being utilised in long-term stores faster than it is being recharged
  • Climate change causing extended drought periods
  • Water tables decreasing
• Environmental impacts of Athabasca tar sands

  • Mass killing of species in the area
  • Cancer rates 10x higher than rest of Canada
  • Pristine forests cleared/deforested
  • Bitumen extraction is energy and water intensive
  • Toxic tailings ponds leaching into groundwater and Athabasca river
  • Very large greenhouse gas emissions
• Physical geography factors affecting water supply

  • Climate (seasonal variations, monsoon season, spring snowmelt, drier climates, El Niño events)
  • Soil water budget (water storage and precipitation greatest in winter and autumn)
• Positives of Athabasca tar sands

  • Can sell large amounts of oil for profit
  • Provides jobs for local people
  • Provides secure energy source
  • Materials can be used to reconstruct infrastructure
  • Investment from other countries
• Mineral resource: Sustainability issues with copper

  Extraction, processing, and trade of copper have environmental and economic impacts
• Water is being utilised in long-term stores, faster than it is being recharged
• Environmental impacts of copper extraction

  • Ores with most copper mined first, so costs increase as lower grade ores mined
  • Open pit mining destroys habitats and reduces biodiversity
  • Exposed rock produces acid for hundreds of years after mining
  • Spills and leaks contaminate water supplies
  • Influx of workers puts pressure on local services