Module 2

• Visual perception


  The process by which the brain makes sense of the visual information that enters the eyes
• We do not see the world EXACTLY as we see it. Instead, our brain tries to make sense of the many stimuli that enter our eyes and fall on our retina
• Objects can look quite different depending on your viewpoint, revealing various details. Thus, perception does not consist of just seeing what is projected onto your retina; the process is much more complex. Your brain processes the visual stimuli, giving the stimuli meaning and interpreting them
• Distal (External) Object


  Object in the external world
• Informational Medium


  The means by which data is conveyed from the object to the perceiver (e.g. sound waves, reflected light, chemical molecules, tactile information)
• Proximal Stimulation


  Activation that occurs at the specific location where the information is perceived (e.g. eardrums, retina, skin)
• Perceptual Object


  An internal conception, based on the proximal stimulation of the distal object
• James Gibson


  • Provided valuable framework for studying perception
  • Introduced the concepts of distal object, informational medium, proximal stimulation, and perceptual object
• Bottom-Up Theories


  • Theory of Direct Perception (Ecological Perception)
  • Template Theories
  • Feature-Matching Theories (Pandemonium Model)
  • Recognition-by-Components (RBC) Theory
• Bottom-Up Theories


  Perception starts with stimuli that appears through the eye
• Top-Down Theories


  Perception is driven by high-level cognitive processes, existing knowledge, and prior expectations that influence perception
• Theory of Direct Perception (Ecological Perception)


  Information in our sensory receptors and sensory context is all we need to perceive anything. The environment supplies us with all the information, so we do not need higher cognitive processes to mediate between our sensory experiences and perceptions
• Template Theories


  We have stored in our mind's myriad sets of templates (highly detailed models for patterns that we may recognize), and we recognize things by comparing them to our set of templates
• Feature-Matching Theories


  Attempts to match features of a pattern to features stored in memory rather than to match a whole pattern to a template or prototype
• Pandemonium Model


  Image Demons receive the visual image and pass it to Feature Demons, which call out when there are matches between the stimulus and the given feature. Cognitive Demons shout out possible patterns stored in memory that conform to one or more of the features, and Decision Demons listen to the pandemonium of the cognitive demons and decide what has been recognized
• Recognition-by-Components (RBC) Theory


  We quickly recognize objects by observing their edges and then decomposing them into simple 3-D geometric shapes called Geons, which can be recomposed into alternative arrangements to build up many basic shapes and objects
• Constructive Perception


  The perceiver builds a cognitive understanding (perception) of a stimulus, using sensory information as the foundation and other sources of information to construct the perception. The concepts of the perceiver and their cognitive processes influence what they see
• Instead of viewing bottom-up and top-down theories as incompatible, we may gain deeper insight into perception by considering the approaches to be complementary
• Attention


  The ability to focus on specific aspects of our environment at the exclusion of others
• Distracted


  When one stimulus interferes with attending to another
• Central Executive Attention


  Tells where to focus our attention and can even hone in on specific aspects of a stimulus
• Selective Attention


  Voluntary focus on a specific sensory input from our environment
• Processing Capacity


  A function where we can focus our attention and not be distracted by outside stimuli. Low-load tasks use up only a tiny amount of our processing capacity, while high-load tasks use up much more
• Load Theory of Attention

  We attend to task-irrelevant stimuli since only some of our cognitive resources have been used when engaged in low-load tasks, but high-load tasks do not leave us any resources to process other stimuli
• Factors Influencing Attention and Focus

  • Emotions, motivation, and expectations
  • Anxiety, stress, and fatigue
  • Task relevance, novelty, and complexity
• Strategies for Enhancing Attention and Focus

  • Mindfulness Practices (meditation and deep breathing)
  • Setting clear goals and prioritizing tasks
  • Limiting distractions
• Consciousness


  The level of consciousness varies for more complex mental processes
• First View (Ericsson & Simon, 1984)

  People have good access to complex mental processes
• Second View (Nisbett & Wilson, 1977)

  People's access to complex mental processes is limited, and they are more aware of the products of their thinking than the processes themselves
• The second view suggests that people have minimal control over their thought processes - research on thought suppression often proves ineffective, and attempting not to think about something can lead to increased obsession with that topic
• Preconscious Processing


  Data outside of conscious awareness that can be accessed or summoned when needed, including stored memories and sensations not actively in conscious awareness
• Priming


  A psychological phenomenon where presentation of a first stimulus (the prime) influences the perception or judgment of a second stimulus
• Positive and Negative Priming

  Positive priming facilitates later recognition or judgment of related concepts, while negative priming hinders it, especially if the prime is irrelevant to the current context
• Conscious vs. Preconscious Processing

  Priming can occur even when the priming stimulus is presented too briefly to be consciously registered, suggesting preconscious processing is at play