Cognitive Psychology

• There are three main types of memory: sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory.
• Long-term memory consists of semantic memory (facts and knowledge) and episodic memory (life events), as well as procedural memory.
• Elaborative rehearsal is needed for information to enter long-term memory.
• Information is meaningfully stored in long-term memory through associations with existing information, conceptual hierarchies, organization, and imagery.
• The levels-of-processing model postulates that memory varies along a continuous dimension in terms of depth of encoding.
• The emphasis in the levels-of-processing model is on processing as the key to storage.
• The level at which information is stored is determined by the depth of processing.
• The levels-of-processing framework describes three levels of processing: perception, analysis of structural features, and analysis of meaning.
• Deeper levels of processing increase the probability of successful retrieval.
• Elaborative rehearsal, which involves tying incoming information to existing memories, is necessary for deeper levels of processing.
• Culture-relevant tests can measure memory skills.
• Baltes and his colleagues have designed tests measuring skill in dealing with the pragmatic aspects of everyday life.
• Designing culture relevant tests requires creativity and effort.
• Encoding, storage, and retrieval are sequential stages in memory processing.
• The processes of encoding, storage, and retrieval are interdependent and interact with each other.
• Verbal labels can facilitate encoding, storage, and retrieval of information.
• Information needs to be encoded before it can be stored in memory.
• Not all information held in short-term memory is transferred to long-term memory.
• Memory is the means by which we retain and draw on our past experiences to use that information in the present.
• Memory changes as you age, with older individuals experiencing difficulties in remembering recent events while retaining vivid memories from their earlier years.
• Cognitive psychologists have identified three common operations of memory: encoding, storage, and retrieval.
• Encoding is the process of transforming sensory data into a mental representation.
• Storage is the stage where encoded information is kept in memory.
• Retrieval is the process of pulling out or using information stored in memory.
• Tasks used for measuring memory include recall and recognition tasks.
• Recall tasks require participants to produce information from memory, such as filling in the blank or answering essay questions.
• Recognition tasks involve identifying previously encountered information, such as multiple-choice tests.
• Memory tasks can also be categorized as implicit or explicit memory tasks.
• Implicit memory tasks involve unconscious retrieval of information, while explicit memory tasks require conscious recollection.
• Recall tasks involve producing a fact or item from memory, such as naming a TV comedian.
• Examples of recall tasks include fill-in-the-blank and essay tests.
• Recognition tasks involve identifying or selecting the correct answer from a given set of options.
• Multiple-choice and true-false tests are examples of recognition tasks.
• Three main types of recall tasks are serial recall, free recall, and cued recall.
• In serial recall, items are recalled in the exact order in which they were presented.
• An example of serial recall would be remembering a list of comedians in a specific order.
• Free recall: Recalling items in any order chosen by the individual.
• Cued recall: Recalling items by being cued with one member of each pair.
• Relearning: Measuring the number of trials it takes to learn items that were previously learned.
• Fetal rats, whose limb movements were restrained by yokes and given kinesthetic feedback, demonstrated shorter learning times for previously learned motor movements.