Module 5

• Language


  A complex and multifaceted phenomenon, with many ways to approach the study of its properties
• Key properties of language


  • Communication
  • Arbitrary symbolic reference
  • Regularity of structure
  • Multiplicity of structure
  • Productivity/generativity
  • Evolutionary and dynamic nature
• Communication


  Language is a means of communication that allows us to convey meaning and ideas to others
• Miscommunications can sometimes occur due to various factors, such as a lack of shared knowledge, differences in cultural background, or the complexity of the message being conveyed
• Arbitrary symbolic reference


  Words are arbitrary symbols to represent real-world things, concepts, relationships, and descriptions
• There is no inherent connection between the word "dog" and the animal it represents
• Regularity of structure


  Language follows specific rules and patterns, both in individual sounds and words and sentences
• Language has a set of rules and patterns that govern how words can be combined to form meaningful communication units, including grammar, syntax, and phonology
• Multiplicity of structure


  Language can be analyzed at multiple levels, from individual sounds to larger language units like paragraphs and books
• Levels of language analysis

  • Phonetics and phonology
  • Morphology
  • Syntax
  • Semantics
  • Pragmatics
• Productivity/generativity


  The ability of language to create an infinite number of unique sentences and other meaningful combinations of words
• Although the number of sounds used in a language is finite, they can be combined in countless ways to form new words and sentences
• Evolutionary and dynamic nature


  Language is constantly evolving and changing, with new words and phrases being created and old ones becoming obsolete
• Problem-solving


  A cognitive process of finding solutions to a particular problem or situation
• Steps in the problem-solving cycle

  • Problem identification
  • Problem definition and representation
  • Strategy formulation
  • Organization of information
  • Resource allocation
  • Monitoring
  • Evaluation
• Problem identification


  Recognizing that there is a problem that needs to be solved, and defining the problem with preciseness
• Problem definition and representation

  Understanding the nature and scope of the problem, its causes, and its effects
• Strategy formulation


  Developing strategies to solve the problem, involving analysis, breaking down the problem, or synthesizing elements
• Organization of information


  Identifying and organizing the relevant information required to solve the problem
• Resource allocation


  Determining the resources required to solve the problem, such as time, money, and effort
• Monitoring


  Tracking progress towards solving the problem and assessing whether the approach needs to be modified
• Evaluation


  Determining whether the problem has been solved correctly or if there is room for improvement
• Well-structured problems


  Problems that have clear paths to solutions, often requiring the application of a formula or a series of steps
• Ill-structured problems


  Problems that lack clear paths to solutions
• Cognitive psychologists have studied well-structured problems, such as motion problems, which require a series of moves to reach a final goal state
• Common errors people make when solving well-structured problems include inadvertently moving backwards, making illegal moves, and not realizing the nature of the subsequent legal action
• Characteristics of well-structured problems

  • A clear path to the solution
  • Defined starting point and goal state
  • Set of rules or procedures
• Steps in solving well-structured problems

  1. Understanding the problem

  2. Identifying the goal state

  3. Determining the rules or procedures

  4. Applying the rules or procedures

  5. Evaluating the solution
• Well-structured problems


  Problems that have a clear path to a solution, with a defined starting point, a goal state, and rules or procedures to follow to reach the goal state
• Characteristics of well-structured problems

  • A clear path to the solution
  • Defined starting point and goal state
  • Set of rules or procedures
• Steps in solving well-structured problems

  1. Understanding the problem

  2. Applying the rules or procedures

  3. Checking the solution
• Common errors in solving well-structured problems

  • Inadvertently moving backwards
  • Making illegal moves
  • Not realizing the nature of the following legal move
• Heuristics for solving well-structured problems

  • Means-ends analysis
  • Working forward
  • Working backwards
  • Generating and testing
• Ill-structured problems


  Problems that lack clear paths to solutions, representing a continuum of clarity in problem-solving rather than two discrete classes
• Isomorphic problems


  Problems with the same formal structure, differing only in content, requiring similar problem-solving strategies
• Problem representation matters in problem-solving
• Working memory capacity


  Ability to solve analytic problems
• The two-string problem is an example of an ill-structured problem
• Insight problems


  Ill-structured problems that require seeing the problem in a novel way and restructuring the representation of the problem to solve it
• Ill-structured problems are challenging to solve because they lack well-defined problem spaces