quantitative and qualitative I

• Quantitative data


  Numerical data that can be measured and analyzed statistically
• Qualitative data


  Non-numerical data that cannot be easily measured, such as observations, opinions, and experiences
• Gathering data through observation

  1. Systematic description of events, behaviors, and artifacts within the social setting

  2. Using the five senses to learn things directly from the researcher's expertise

  3. Studying things that cannot be manipulated in a laboratory due to ethical constraints
• Field notes


  A written account of what the researcher has seen, experienced, felt, or thought during the actual observation
• Components of field notes

  • Descriptive (capturing a word picture of the actual setting, actions, and conversations)
  • Reflective (the researcher's thoughts, ideas, questions, or concerns)
• Types of field notes

  • Field jottings (quick notes on something the researcher would like to recall later)
  • Field diary (personal statements of the researcher's thoughts, feelings, questions, or opinions on others)
  • Field logs (schedule of daily activities while conducting an interview or observation)
• Maintaining integrity and honesty in observation

  • Considering the problems of observer effect (people acting differently when they know they are being observed)
  • Considering the problems of observer bias (the researcher's characteristics or ideas affecting what they observe)
• Steps in the method of observing

  1. Choose the research site

  2. Develop observational protocol (get consent from authorities)

  3. Focus the observation on things that will assist in understanding the analysis questions

  4. Confirm the researcher's role (participant observer or non-participant observer)
• Participant observer is within the situation of the one being observed, while a non-participant observer watches from the outside without being involved
• Participant observer


  You are within the situation of the one you are observing
• Non-participant observer


  You observe them through CCTV or have the authorities install CCTV without them knowing
• Recording field notes


  Through your field diary or field blocks
• Slowly withdraw after observation


  1. Thank the participants for their time (if participant observer)

  2. Not necessarily done (if non-participant observer)
• Interview


  Oral communication between two or more individuals where the interviewer asks questions to gather specific information from the interviewee
• Types of interviews


  • Structured
  • Semi-structured
  • Informal
  • Retrospective
• Structured interview


  Researcher prepares a selected set of questions and strictly follows them, no follow-up questions
• Semi-structured interview


  Researcher sets outline of topics and prepares open-ended questions, allows for follow-up questions
• Informal interview


  Less formal, no set questions, questions arise naturally in conversation
• Retrospective interview


  Tries to urge respondents to recall and reconstruct past experiences, thoughts and feelings
• Steps in conducting an interview

  1. Decide if interviews are applicable

  2. Select type of interview

  3. Invite participants

  4. Develop interview protocol

  5. Consider ethical considerations

  6. Prepare audio equipment

  7. Organize setting

  8. Conduct interview

  9. Follow up after interview
• Focus group discussion


  Free-flowing discussion with a small group of 6-10 individuals to generate different concepts and opinions, moderated by a skilled facilitator
• Types of questions in focus group discussion

  • Engagement questions (set tone, engage interest)
  • Exploratory questions (probe issues raised)
  • Exit questions (ensure everything covered)