Theories, methods and debates — sociology

• Reliability


  When the study can be replicated using the same method to achieve similar or consistent results
• Validity


  To what extent the results create a true or authentic picture of what is being studied
• Representativeness

  To what extent the findings can be applied to the research population
• Quantitative data

  Numerical, factual data
• Qualitative data


  Data that involves words
• Positivism


  Sociologists can and should model their research methods on those of the natural sciences — such as physics. This will produce objective, true and scientific knowledge of society.
• Quantitative data

  Used by positivists to produce cause and effects about a social phenomenon
• Laboratory experiments

  • Control - The lab is an artificial environment in which the scientist can control different variables
  • Experimental group - Those who are exposed to a variable (independent variable)
  • Control group - Those who are not exposed to the independent variable
  • Cause and effect - The condition of both groups is measured before and after the experiment
• PET Issues with lab experiments

  • Practical - Only suitable for studying closed systems, small sample size, Hawthorne effect
  • Ethical - Informed consent, harm to subjects
  • Theoretical - Reliability and hypothesis testing, Representativeness, Interpretivism and Free Will
• Field experiments

  Take place in the subject's natural surroundings, those involved do not know they are subjects
• Field experiments vs lab experiments

  Field experiments isolate and manipulate variables to see the effect, unlike lab experiments which control variables
• Comparative method


  A 'thought' experiment carried out in the mind of the sociologist, re-analysing secondary data to discover cause and effect relationships
• Advantages of comparative method over lab experiments

  • Avoids artificiality, can be used to study past events, avoids ethical issues of deceiving subjects
• Disadvantages of comparative method

  • Less control over variables than field experiments, less certain of cause-effect impact
• Questionnaires

  Closed-ended favoured by positivists, open-ended favoured by interpretivists
• Advantages of questionnaires

  • Practical - cheap and quick, Quantifiable data, Representative - can reach widespread sample, Reliable - easily repeated
  • Limited ethical issues - no obligation to respond
• Disadvantages of questionnaires

  • Low response rate, Low validity - people may lie, Unrepresentative - certain groups more likely to respond, No interviewer to ask follow-up questions
• Types of interviews

  • Structured - favoured by positivists, Unstructured - favoured by interpretivists, Semi-structured
• Structured interviews


  Use a list of pre-set questions and ask all interviewees the same way
• Advantages of structured interviews

  • Practical - training is easy and cheap, Practical - cheap to carry out, Representative - can reach wide sample, Easily quantifiable results, Reliable - standard process
• Disadvantages of structured interviews

  • Lack of validity - closed-ended questions may not fit what interviewee wants to say, Lack of validity - people may lie or exaggerate
• Semi-structured interviews

  Pre-determined set of open questions with opportunity for further explanation
• Advantages of semi-structured interviews

  • Large amount of detail generated, Fairly flexible and sensitive, Easier to analyse than unstructured
• Disadvantages of semi-structured interviews

  • Can't guarantee honesty of participants, Cause and effect cannot be inferred, Flexibility of interviewer may lessen reliability, Difficulty to analyse - open-ended, Difficult to compare answers
• Unstructured interviews


  Open-ended questions that produce qualitative data, high in validity, favoured by feminists
• Advantages of unstructured interviews

  • Rapport - informality allows interviewer to develop relationship, Flexibility - not restricted to fixed questions, Valid - people can be more truthful
• Disadvantages of unstructured interviews

  • Practical - time consuming and expensive, Unrepresentative - small research samples, Not reliable - open questions cannot be easily repeated
• Participant observation


  The researcher joins the activities of the group they are researching
• Advantages of participant observation

  • Valid - groups observed in natural setting, Valid - data is richly detailed and offers insight
• Disadvantages of participant observation

  • Unreliable - open-ended and subjective, Unrepresentative - small scale groups, Invalid - Hawthorne effect and risk of 'going native', Ethical issues - ensuring anonymity, Practical issues - getting in, staying in, getting out
• Non-participant observation


  The observer avoids direct involvement with the research group
• Advantages of non-participant observation

  • Valid - limited risk of researcher going native
• Disadvantages of non-participant observation

  • Unreliable - each observation is subjective and cannot be repeated, Unrepresentative - small-scale research sample
• Overt observation


  The researcher explains their intention to the group, so they are aware they are being observed
• Advantages of overt observation

  • Less ethical issues than covert, Higher level of reliability, Can openly take notes, Allows researcher to also use interview methods
• Disadvantages of overt observation

  • Practical - time consuming, Lacks validity - Hawthorne effect, Less reliable - difficult to repeat, Not always representative
• Covert observation


  The researcher keeps their real identity and purpose secret from the research group
• Advantages of covert observation

  • More valid than overt due to lack of Hawthorne effect, Obtain more in-depth detail
• Disadvantages of covert observation

  • Ethical issues - immoral to deceive people, Time consuming to gain trust and acceptance
• Official statistics


  Quantitative methods collected by government bodies, favoured by positivists