Approaches

• Outline the origins of psychology

  Introspection--> a self-report technique where people record their conscious thoughts to be then broken down into basic elements.

  
  

  Wundt (1879) believed in structuralism of the mind.

  Now recognised as 'scientific' due to the many controls used i.e. the same stimulus (a ticking metronome) and the same standardised instructions to be issued to all participants, allowing for the process to be replicated.

  
  

  The scientific approach

  R: Replicable; can be recreated

  O: Objective; based on facts rather than opinion

  C: Controlled; limiting the effect of any external variables

  E: Empirical; hard evidence

  T: Theory Construction; the use of a theory to make a prediction

  
  

  Also uses scientific cycle--> observation, theory, prediction, research
• Evaluate the origins of psychology

  Introspection

  + A benefit is application; Griffiths (1994) gambling 'think aloud' study of gamblers and non-gamblers on fruit machine; showed the 2 groups had very different thought processes; information useful as can help tackle addiction.

  --- Focus on private mind; Nisbett and Wilson 1977 believe we have very little awareness of underlying though process; introspection limited as does not cover whole mind; low internal validity as not sure what causes thoughts or if they're all being recorded.

  --- Flawed due to subjective findings; skinner claims only observable behaviour can be measured objectively; introspection not measured objectively; also low internal validity

  
  

  Scientific

  + The scientific approach with many controls allows studies to be replicated; Ainsworth's strange situation, step by step instructions; used globally to assess attachment; increases reliability of the theory as evidence for it is replicable so can be tested many times.

  --- High controlled environment does not reflect real life, Loftus and Palmer car crash slips, lacks the stress so not an accurate example of a real life situation; lacks ecological validity as does not mimic a real reaction/situation.
• Outline the learning approach: Behaviourism

  Behaviourist approach explains behaviour in terms of what is observable and in terms of learning.

  
  

  Classical conditioning- Pavlov

  Learning by associating, 2 stimuli, 1 unconditioned & 1 neutral, the neutral stimulus will then become associated, so a conditioned stimulus, and create the same response and the original unconditioned stimulus.

  Bell-->food-->dog-->salivation

  
  

  Operant conditioning - Skinner (1953)

  Rats and pigeons in cages, every time a lever was pushed a food pellet would be released and the animals would learn to push the lever for food. Would also learn to avoid a lever if it gave an electric shock.

  
  

  - Positive reinforcement receiving a reward for performing a certain behaviour

  - Negative reinforcement performing an action/behaviour to avoid a something unpleasant such as an electric shock

  - Punishment an unpleasant consequence for behaviour
• Evaluate the learning approach: Behaviourism

  Support:

  • Research is credible; studies focused on lab studies and the measure of observable characteristics, Skinner; emphasising importance of scientific processes, objectivity and replication, high reliability as results are based on observed behaviour and can be replicated.

  • Application; classical conditioning when treating phobias (break fearful associations); Gilroy et al 2003; after 3 sessions of SD meant pps were less fearful than the control group; causation clear; high internal validity.

  
  

  Criticism:

  • Tested on animals; to avoid participant bias and ethical implications of trying to condition human behaviour (little Albert) animals often used; animals are a different species, different structures and behaviours; cannot generalise due to the different groups/ extrapolation of findings not applicable.

  • Theories ignore free will; approach assumes behaviour is due to past experiences conditioning us; therefore our actions are only an illusion of freewill; deterministic as it ignores free will as a concept.
• Outline the learning approach: Social learning theory

  Social learning theory Behaviour is learned through observation and imitation with in a social context

  
  

  1) Vicarious reinforcement reinforcement not directly experienced but occurs through observing someone else being reinforced for a behaviour

  2) Imitation Coping the behaviour of others

  3) Identification observer associates themselves with role model they want to be like

  4) Modelling demonstration of specific behaviour which might be imitated

  5) Mediational processes

  Attention- the extent to which we notice certain behaviours;

  Retention- how well the behaviour is remembered;

  Motor reproduction- ability of observer to perform the behaviour; Motivation- the will to perform the behaviour, which is often determined by whether the behaviour was rewarded or punished

  
  

  Bandura's Study- Bobo doll:

  1961 lab experiment matched pairs design

  Split into 3 conditions, one witnessed an adult violently hurting the doll, another witnessed the adult play softly with the doll and third was a control.

  Results showed that the children whom had observed the violent behaviour were more violent to the doll than those who had not witnessed it.
• Evaluate the learning approach: Social learning theory

  Support:

  • Supporting evidence; Bandura 1961, Bobo doll; children imitated what they observed SLT; high in validity as clear cause/IV determines DV.

  • Explains cultural differences; Kung San tribe of Kalahari Desert has little violence, its frowned upon; demonstrates that no role model or direct reinforcement means behaviour has to of been learn; can be generalised across cultures as suggests what happens with and without 5 ideas of SLT.

  
  

  Criticism:

  • Ignores role of biology; in Bobo doll studies boys were consistently more aggressive than girls regardless of condition; hormonal factors, levels of testosterone; reductionist as focus on learning rather than innate bio.

  • Over-reliance on lab studies; labs are artificial so pps may respond to demand characteristics; Bandura, hit doll as they think its expected; shows little about how they actually learn XXX.
• Outline the cognitive appraoch

  Focussed on how mental processes affect behaviour; that internal mental processes should be studied and conclusions made by indirect inferences

  
  

  Role of schema--> mental framework of beliefs and expectations that influence cognitive processing based on past experience.

  They help us take shortcuts when thinking but can lead to faulty conclusions based on perceptual errors that cause unhelpful behaviour.

  
  

  Information processing model: Input, decision making, output or input, storage, retrieval

  
  

  Computer model: Assumes brain processes information like a computer

  •Central processing unit- Brain

  •Coding- to turn information into a useable format

  •Stores- to hold different chunks of information

  
  

  Cognitive neuroscience

  1860s - Broca identified speech located in frontal lobe (Broca's Area)

  Last 20 years - fMRI & PET scan development improves observation of the living brain (LTM in prefrontal cortex)

  Currently developing computer generated models to read brain based on what we know from mapping
• Evaluate the cognitive appraoch

  Support:

  • Credible; cognitive neuroscience provides and inferred conclusions; ns has empirical evidence and inferred are based on observed behaviour; reliable as uses scientific approach.

  • Applications; treatment of mental illness, CBT for depression; has a positive impact on people's lives such as working; useful economic implication as more people are able to contribute to the economy.

  
  

  Criticism:

  • Computer analogy criticised; EWT affected by anxiety; emotions will influence cognitive processes; machine reductionism as fails to consider role of emotion or motivation within the human mind.

  • Assumes people only have limited free will; free to think how to respond/behave but we can only act within the limits of what we know; interactionalist model; soft determinism as it accepts free will but only to a certain degree.
• Outline the biological appraoch

  Emphasises the importance of physical processes in the body such as genetic inheritance and neutral function

  
  

  Genetic Basis of behaviour:

  Genotype: biological make up of an individual- inherited genetic material.

  Phenotype: observable characteristics of an individual- the physical expression of inherited genetic information.

  
  

  Genes:

  Twin studies measure the extent to which they share the same characteristics (concordance rate) to determine a genetic influence.

  If monozygotic (identical) twins have higher concordance rate than dizygotic (non-identical) twins it suggests a genetic cause because MZ twins share twice as many genes.

  
  

  Neurochemistry--> chemicals in the brain which regulate psychological functions (determined by genes) often acting at neurones

  Overall:

  Natural selection suggests certain genes are passed down through generations because the behaviour and biology they brought about in the carrier improved their ability to survive and reproduce.
• Evaluate the biological approach

  Support:

  • Real-life application; development of psychoactive drugs (Soomro et al (2009) meta-analysis of 17 SSRI vs placebo studies found all OCD patients showed significantly greater improvement from SSRIs than placebo.) are effective for many; altering neurochemistry changes psychological functioning; useful since people live better lives.

  • Scientific; FMRIs, EEGs, family and twin studies are all used; biological and neural processes measured in non-bias way as genes are innate; reliable data as relies on empirical evidence and is replicable so can be tested again.

  
  

  Criticism:

  • Problem with twin studies; doesn't separate nature and nurture, twins normally grow up in same environment; doesn't determine cause; lacks internal validity.

  • Ignores the role of free will; assumes that behaviour is governed by biological processes; these are innate and we can have no control over the majority (expect for drug intervention); thus deterministic as free will is being ignored.
• Outline the psychodynamic approach

  Psychic Determinism: all behaviors driven by antecedent events, experiences. There are no accidents; nothing happens by chance

  
  

  Pleasure Principle: constant drive to reduce tension through expression of instinctual urges

  
  

  Types of conscience:

  1-The conscious mind: awareness at the present moment.

  2-The preconscious mind: consists of accessible information if you direct your attention to it. Think of this as memory recall; becomes apparent during dreams or slip of tongue.

  3-The unconscious mind: Consists of the primitive, instinctual wishes as well as information that we cannot access (repressed thoughts and memories).

  
  

  Tripartite personality structure:

  1) The Id; this is the animals part of the psyche and is governed by instinctual drives; its general motivation is the satisfaction of these drives and if frustrated they become aggressive (pleasure principle).

  2) The Superego; this is the moral part of the psyche formed at the end of the phallic stage; governed to behave in the ways we're expected to, and if not it punishes us with anxiety and guilt.

  3) The Ego; this is the part of the psyche concerned with reality. It tries to balance out the demands of the id with the constraints of the superego in a realistic way by employing defence mechanisms.

  
  

  Defence mechanisms:

  Excessive use will result in the ego becoming increasingly detached from reality and can cause psychological disorder

  Psychoanalysis involves effort to understand defences and unconscious motives driving self-destructive behaviours

  DenialThe refusal to accept reality or fact, acting as if a painful event, thought or feeling did not exist. It involves blocking external events from awareness.

  RepressionAn unconscious mechanism to keep disturbing/threatening thoughts from entering conscious. These thoughts often would cause guilt in superego so now anxiety in the unconscious.

  DisplacementThe redirection of an impulse (usually aggression) onto a powerless substitute target. The target can be a person or an object.

  
  

  Psychosexual stages: Freud believed in 5 stages of child development and that unresolved conflicts in these may lead to fixation in later life, creating future conflicts.
• Evaluate the psychodynamic approach

  Support:

  • Practical application when treating some mental disorders; psychoanalysis 'talking cure' focuses on understanding causes of problems through accessing the unconscious (dream analysis or hypnosis); aims to resolve anxieties; useful as has some success but also basis for modern therapies for wider issues.

  
  

  Criticism:

  • Reliance on case studies; idiographic approach which focuses on (psychologically abnormal) individuals; different to majority; cannot generalise

  • Research unscientific; 'Little Hans' case study involved interviewing the father and analysing dreams; concludes fear of horses due to displacement of fear from father and castration anxiety, subjective and not scientific; low internal validity as no cause and effect established.

  • Ignores free will; behaviour does not happen by accident, even a slip of the tongue (call teacher mum); caused by unconscious (many of which are instinctual so innate); psychic determinism as free will put aside for explanations of childhood development and unconscious mind.
• Outline the humanistic approach

  Main Assumptions:

  • Every Individual is Unique (idiographic approach)

  • Free Will rules choices not determined by biological or external forces although there are constraints (laws etc), responsible for behaviour.

  • Not a science humans are subjective not objective

  
  

  Maslow

  He believes humans are motivated by needs beyond basic biological survival, such as the human desire to grow and develop our full potential - self-actualisation.

  His hierarchy of needs illustrates this:

  
  

  Physiological needs, safety needs, love and belonging, esteem, self-actualisation.

  
  

  Sheffield et al, 1995 has shown that there is a positive correlation between an individuals level of self actualisation and their psychological health

  Carl Rogers points out that the humanistic approach concerned itself with explanations of healthy growth in individuals as opposed to the unhealthy.

  
  

  Conditions of worth

  Humans have basic need to feel nurtured and valued by signif people in their lives. If given freely, unconditional positive regard, then they develop a healthy sense of self-worth, recognising their abilities and difficulties

  Children who receive negative regard, such as criticism and blame, develop low self-esteem

  
  

  Well-being

  Can be established if the individual maintains reasonable consistency between ideal self and actual self (known as congruence). The greater the gap between the 2 ideas of self the greater the incongruence (can lead to low self-worth and maladjustment).

  
  

  Client-centred therapy (Rogers)

  Aims to remove incongruence by providing unconditional positive regard they failed to receive as a child to develop positive self-regard and overcome mismatch between selves.

  
  

  Gestalt therapy

  Aims to help client become 'whole' by accepting every part of themselves. Techniques used involve confrontation, dream analysis and role-playing.
• Evaluate the humanistic approach


  Support:

  • Values free will; fundamental concept is that we are responsible for own actions; links with legal system position are provides the ability to understand complex human nature; not deterministic + high face validity as generally accepted.

  • Client centred therapy application; Gibbard and Hanley 2008, 70% of 700 patients (anx or dep) showed significant improvement (questionnaires b&a); clear cause and effect; high internal validity

  
  

  Criticism:

  • Heavy emphasis on idiographic approach; in main assumptions and therapy it inspires people must be treated as unique individuals; as such own experiences so no laws can be established, only vague concepts/ abstract ideas; cannot generalise anything to whole population due to everyone's unique experience.

  • The ideas of individual freedom, growth and autonomy are more associated with individualist cultures; America supports people striving towards individual self-actualisation but India, collectivist, emphasis needs of group/community and interdependence; does not apply to their beliefs; ethnocentric bias
• Compare the approaches with issues and debates: Free will vs determinism


  Biological Deterministic; behaviour controlled by internal factors (genes or hormones) and may dictate the environment

  
  

  Behaviourist Deterministic; behaviour controlled by reinforcement and punishment which will condition responses

  
  

  Social learning theory Soft determinism; environment determines behaviour however there is an element of choice when deciding how to act

  
  

  Cognitive Soft determinism; behaviour controlled by innate capabilities and past experience yet people choose what to attend to

  
  

  Psychodynamic Deterministic; behaviour determined by unconscious drives and early childhood experiences

  
  

  Humanistic Free will; people are free to act in any way they want
• Compare the approaches with issues and debates: Nature and nurture

  Biological Nature; behaviour result of innate factors with focus on heredity

  Behaviourist Nurture; born blank, behaviours shaped by environment

  
  

  Social learning theory Nurture; born blank, behaviour learnt through observation and reinforcement

  
  

  Cognitive Both; behaviour product of innate schemas which develop through interaction with environment

  
  

  Psychodynamic Mostly nature; behaviour product of innate instinctual drives but shaped by childhood experiences

  
  

  Humanistic Mostly nurture; behaviour influenced by environment influencing how they reach self-actualisation, but the need for this is innate
• Compare the approaches with issues and debates: Reductionism and Holism

  Biological Reductionist; Behaviour broken down into structures and processes

  Behaviourist Reductionist; behaviour broken down into stimulus-response association

  
  

  Social learning theory Partly reductionist; mainly considers external factors but also some cognitive influences

  
  

  Cognitive Reductionist; it reduces human cognitive processes to those of a computer

  
  

  Psychodynamic Both; holistic because it concentrates on the individual's life but is also reductionist because all behaviour is reduced to unconscious motives

  
  

  Humanistic Holistic; believe that a person can only be understood as a whole. Thoughts, behaviour and experience should not be reduced to smaller component elements
• Compare the approaches with issues and debates: Idiographic and nomothetic


  Biological Mostly Nomothetic; universal laws which all humans share (idio for case studies)

  Behaviourist Nomothetic; creates universal laws and principles

  
  

  Social learning theory Nomothetic; creates general laws and principles of behaviour

  
  

  Cognitive Mostly Nomothetic; seeking to discover general principles/theories of cognitive processing but has also used idiographic techniques

  
  

  Psychodynamic Both; The approach is idiographic because it concentrates on the individual but also nomothetic because of the general principles of the theory

  
  

  Humanistic Idiographic; emphasises the uniqueness of the individual and their subjective experience
• Comparison of approaches with issues and debates: Views on development

  Biological Maturation is important, genetically determined changes in a child's physiological status influence psychological and behavioural characteristics.

  
  

  Behaviourist Does not offer coherent stages but instead see the processes of learning as continuous and occurring at any age.

  
  

  Social learning theory Does not offer coherent stages but instead see the processes of learning as continuous and occurring at any age.

  
  

  Cognitive Stage theories contribute, for example as part of intellectual development, children form increasingly complex concepts (schema) as they age

  
  

  Psychodynamic Has clear coherent stages (psychosexual stages) that are determined by age and are linked to the approach's other concepts.

  
  

  Humanistic Sees the development of self as ongoing throughout life yet the child's relationship with parents is key in determining future psychological self.
• Comparision of approaches with issues and debates: Explanation and treatment of abnormal behaviour

  Biological Result of genes and hormones, drug therapy is used to control abnormal behaviours such as OCD symptoms.

  
  

  Behaviourist Abnormality is a result of maladaptive thought process and fault learning as inappropriate/destructive behaviours are being reinforced. Behavioural therapies such as systematic desensitisation successfully treat phobias.

  
  

  Social learning theory The principles of observation and modelling are used to explain how negative behaviours such as aggression are learnt through influence of dysfunctional role models.

  
  

  Cognitive Assumes faulty thinking is the root cause of maladaptive behaviour so disorders such as depression can be treated with cognitive behavioural therapy.

  
  

  Psychodynamic Anxiety disorders are a result of unconscious conflict, childhood traumas and overuse of defence mechanisms. Psychoanalysis can be used to alleviate some anxieties but only if patient has lots of time and ability to talk in depth.

  
  

  Humanistic Abnormal behaviour is a result of the separation of ones idea self from their actual self, if the gap is too big, incongruence will prevent self-actualisation. Client-centred therapy is used to tackle this gap.
• Social learning theory


  Learned through observation and imitation of role models
• Vicarious reinforcement


  When we observe another person being reinforced either positively or negatively and we learn from their behaviour for our own
• Identification


  When we associate ourselves with whom we identify ourselves with the most e.g same gender or status
• Mediational processes

  • ATTENTION - how we notice certain behaviours
  • RETENTION - remembering the specific behaviours
  • MOTOR REPRODUCTION - ability to perform the behaviour
  • MOTIVATION - the will to perform a behaviour
• Bandura bobo doll study

  1. 1961 study included 2 groups of children - one who watched a video of an aggressive adult playing with a bobo doll and one with non-aggressive adults playing with the bobo doll

  2. Results showed that children who watched the aggressive adults were more likely to be violent with the bobo doll than those who did not witness it

  3. 1963 study included the same conditions except the aggressive adults were reprimanded for their behaviour (positive reinforcement) the child was likely to be aggressive in the situation
• Social learning theory

  Less reductionist than the behaviourist approach
• Vicarious reinforcement


  Shows that our cognitive mediational processes are active during learning
• Bandura 1963 study


  Children were more likely to imitate and observe the behaviour when the adults were praised, showing that thinking occurred as to whether the behaviour would benefit them (motivation)
• Social learning theory


  Mostly evidenced by lab studies, may lack validity
• Controlled lab experiments

  Do not apply to real life situations, lack external validity
• Bobo doll study

  Participants may have assumed to attack the bobo doll, showing signs of demand characteristics, lacks internal validity
• Social learning theory

  Underestimates the influence of biological factors
• Boys are more aggressive than girls

  May be because males possess a certain hormone, testosterone, which makes them more aggressive than females
• Behaviourism is only interested in studying the behaviour which can be observed and measured, not mental processes
• Early behaviourists such as John.B Watson rejected the idea of introspection proposed by Wundt as it contained many vague and untestable concepts
• Behaviourists tried to maintain control in their studies so relied more on lab studies to conduct their research
• Behaviourists believed that species work in a similar way to humans, so much research was tested on animals as a substitution for humans
• Ivan Pavlov's classical conditioning


  Dogs were conditioned to associate the sound of a bell to the presence of food, eventually producing salivation in response to the absence of food
• Skinner's operant conditioning


  Placing a rat into the Skinner's box, it would either get a shock from the electric plate or press the lever to release food, deriving three types of consequences: positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement, and punishment
• Behavioural approach


  Uses scientific methods such as lab experiments, providing reliable, replicable, observable and empirical evidence