PHIL 333 FINAL EXAM.

• Descriptive Ethics


  Studies actual moral values held by individuals and groups
• Descriptive Ethics


  • Do people find it morally acceptable to conduct dangerous medical experiments on non-human animals?
• Moral Psychology


  Investigates the nature and development of moral agency
• Moral Psychology


  • At what age are children capable of making significant moral decisions?
• Applied Ethics


  Deals with moral issues in specific practical situations
• Applied Ethics


  • What should a psychiatrist do if a client reveals intentions to harm another person?
• Theoretical Normative Ethics


  Examines how moral values should be determined and moral decisions made
• Theoretical Normative Ethics


  • By what reasoning can we determine what is morally right versus wrong?
• Meta-Ethics


  Explores the fundamental nature of ethics and the meanings of moral terms
• Meta-Ethics


  • What does it mean for something to be intrinsically morally valuable?
• Descriptive Morality


  Describes individuals' and groups' beliefs about what is morally good or bad, right or wrong, and how they tend to act accordingly
• Descriptive Morality focuses on empirical claims about existing or possible moral beliefs and behaviors
• Prescriptive Morality


  Prescribes actions, behaviors, rules, and traits judged as morally good or bad based on moral ideals
• Prescriptive Morality is associated with normative ethics, which determines what actions are morally required, recommended, or permitted
• Prescriptive Morality assumes universality, suggesting that moral prescriptions should apply universally to all rational beings
• Amorality


  A state where individuals lack knowledge of or are indifferent to moral standards
• Amoral Actions


  • Actions performed without consideration of whether they are right or wrong
• Very young children and some animals are often seen as acting amorally due to their limited or absent moral understanding
• Moral Responsibility


  Being accountable for one's actions and their outcomes, often resulting in praise or blame
• Praise and Blame

  Praise is typically reserved for actions that go beyond basic responsibilities (supererogatory acts), while blame is assigned when responsibilities are not met
• Moral Obligations


  Duties that individuals must fulfill; they can be seen as synonymous with duties and entail actions that are morally necessary
• Moral Rights


  Entitlements to be treated or provided with certain benefits; they correspond to duties others have to fulfill those entitlements
• Positive vs. Negative Rights

  Positive rights require actions to fulfill entitlements (e.g., healthcare), while negative rights demand inaction to respect entitlements (e.g., freedom of speech)
• Prima Facie Duties


  Initial duties that may be overridden by more pressing moral duties in specific circumstances, after considering all relevant factors
• It's essential to grasp another person's reasoning thoroughly before critiquing it or presenting a counter-argument. Criticizing without understanding is both intellectually dishonest and imprudent (unwise)
• Before presenting one's own reasoning, it's crucial to ensure it is well-developed and fully understood. Half-formed arguments risk committing to moral judgments that may not hold under scrutiny
• Like scientific reasoning, philosophical reasoning aims to uncover truth, knowledge, and wisdom. While philosophers may not always claim absolute truths, their discussions contribute to human understanding and progress
• Teleological Approach

  Utilitarianism judges actions by their outcomes or consequences
• Consequentialist Approach


  Utilitarianism evaluates the morality of actions based on the goodness or badness of their consequences
• Greatest Happiness Principle


  Actions are right if they promote happiness or minimize unhappiness for the greatest number of people affected by the action
• Utilitarianism considers the happiness of all individuals affected by an action, not just the agent or those directly involved
• Act Utilitarianism


  Judges each individual action based on whether it maximizes overall happiness
• Rule Utilitarianism


  Judges actions based on general rules that tend to maximize happiness when followed consistently
• Utilitarianism requires moral agents to act impartially, maximizing happiness for all affected individuals equally
• Rule utilitarianism arose to address criticisms by focusing on the general principles or rules that promote happiness, rather than evaluating each action individually
• Deontological Approach


  Actions are judged based on the principles or duties they embody, rather than their consequences
• Categorical Imperative


  Kant's fundamental principle for determining moral rightness: Act only according to maxims (personal principles) that you can consistently will to become universal laws, and treat humanity, including oneself and others, always as ends in themselves, never merely as means to an end
• Universalizability Test

  Before acting, formulate your maxim (personal principle), generalize it to see if it could be consistently applied by everyone, and if universalizing the maxim leads to logical contradictions or undermines its purpose, the action is morally impermissible (wrong)
• Respect for Persons


  Moral actions must respect the intrinsic dignity and worth of all individuals, including oneself
• Autonomy and Moral Law


  Moral duty requires freely choosing to uphold moral principles, recognizing oneself as a rational and autonomous moral agent