Responses

• Intraspecific Relationships


  Relationships between members of the same species for resources as they have the same life requirements
• Interspecific Relationships


  Interactions between different species; can be both beneficial and detrimental
• Cooperative


  Mutual benefit
• Aggressive


  Behaviours towards another member of the same species due to competition
• Carrying Capacity


  Maximum population size able to be sustained in an environment
• Ultimate Goal in Biology

  Sex so that genes can be passed on, the most successful genes increase in frequency in the gene pool
• Results of Intraspecific Relationships

  Lower survivorship, increased development time, reduced body size and reduced reproductive output
• Aggressive Behaviour


  Physical fighting which can result in injury or death
• Agnostic Behaviour


  Posturing, growling, showing teeth, trials of strength which reduces intraspecific aggression by sorting disputes before physical fighting occurs
• Niche


  It is the combination of the tolerance range to the suite of environmental factors that determines where an organism lives
• Reduce Intraspecific Relationships


  Cooperative relationships, hierarchies and territories
• Cooperative Group


  Multiple animal intraspecific relationships where ALL members benefit from their association
• Group Formation


  When animals of the same species live part or all of their lives in co-operative group
• Exception to Group Formation

  Low ranking may have lower natality which is a disadvantage but overall survival still increased by association
• Group Formation Benefits

  Protection from abiotic factors, mutual defence and protection, division of labour, enhance food acquisition, and readily available mates
• Group Formation Costs

  Increased intra-specific competition, increased chance of the spread of disease, access to mates can be restricted if you are low ranking and young may be killed if change in alpha occurs
• Group Formation Key Point

  Everyone in the group must benefit in some way for the behaviour to occur otherwise it would not be an adaptive advantage, which is passed on in genes
• Altruism


  When an individual does something that will benefit another individual or group even though they themselves will not get an immediate benefit in return.
• Kin Selection


  Altruism towards relative (kin) that still results in survival of genes
• Open Group Membership

  Temporary membership, individuals may enter or leave at will
• Closed Group Membership


  Membership stable enough for each member to recognise other members and results in social hierarchy
• Hierarchies


  A group with an organised social structure that enables individuals to better allocate energy
• Hierarchal Rank


  Determines order of access to resources within the groups, which reduces direct aggression
• Linear Hierarchy

  No equals, every individual above or below another. Alpha dominates all others, beta dominates all but alpha
• Complex Hierarchy


  Involve coalitions and alliances, subordinate groups. Alpha male in charge, helped by beta to control group. All ranks except alpha are changeable depending on the situation
• Requirements for Existence of Hierarchy

  All members of the group must benefit from its existence and all group members must be able to recognise each other
• Establishing Dominance


  Strength, size, aggression, age, experience and kin alliances
• Features of Complex Hierarchies

  Still a function of dominance ranking but more complex and readily changeable. This makes it difficult to predict outcomes
• Alpha


  Makes all decisions, main protector and breeder
• Sentinel


  Lower-ranking males acting as lookout, back up protection and often don't breed
• Subordinate Group


  Lower-ranking males obtain more mating opportunities by forming coalitions with other males that succeed in dislodging high ranking males from their consortships
• Hierarchy Benefits

  Reduces aggression within group, dominant males mate ensuring more 'fit' offspring are produced to strengthen group gene pool
• Mating Systems


  A framework of social relationships within which individuals within a species compete for mates, classified according to degree of pair bonding and parental care
• Females


  Eggs are large and energy expensive to produce, in females best interest to ensure 'best' sperm fertilises her eggs
• Males


  Can produce large amounts of sperm for small amount of energy, often in males best interest to fertilise as many eggs as possible leading to competition for mates
• Sexual Dimorphism

  Males differ significantly from females
• Monogamy


  1 female : 1 male. Pair bonds form, both usually raise young
• Polyandry


  1 female : many males. Each male cares for young, increased genetic variability increases survival of young
• Polygyny


  1 male competes for many females. Evolution selects for showier males, males don't tend to raise young, females tend to control mate choice
• Polygynandry


  Both male and female mate with more than one partner. Group brings up young, males help incubate eggs, those that don't breed raise young