Pharmacognosy

• What are primary metabolites essential for?

  Basic life functions of an organism, such as growth, development, and reproduction.
• What are examples of primary metabolites?

  Carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids.
• How do secondary metabolites differ from primary metabolites?

  Secondary metabolites are not directly involved in growth, development, or reproduction.
• What are the purposes of secondary metabolites?

  They serve functions such as defense, signaling, competition, and structural support.
• What are the key functions of secondary metabolites?

  - Defense against predators and pathogens - Signaling for communication (e.g., attracting pollinators) - Competition for resources - Structural support (e.g., lignin in plants)
• What triggers the production of secondary metabolites?

  Environmental stresses or developmental cues.
• What are alkaloids?


  Nitrogen-containing compounds such as caffeine, nicotine, and morphine.
• What are terpenoids derived from?

  Isoprene units.
• What are phenolic compounds?

  Aromatic compounds containing one or more hydroxyl groups, like flavonoids and tannins.
• What are glycosides?


  Compounds consisting of a sugar group bonded to a non-carbohydrate moiety.
• What are polyketides?


  Complex compounds synthesized from acyl-CoA precursors, including antibiotics and pigments.
• What are the major classes of secondary metabolites?

  1. Alkaloids 2. Terpenoids 3. Phenolic compounds 4. Glycosides 5. Polyketides
• Why are secondary metabolites important in nature?

  They mediate ecological interactions, help organisms adapt, and facilitate symbiotic relationships.
• How do humans utilize secondary metabolites?

  They are used in pharmaceuticals, flavors/fragrances, and pigments/dyes.
• What are some human applications of secondary metabolites?

  - Pharmaceuticals (e.g., antibiotics, anti-cancer agents) - Flavors and fragrances (e.g., essential oils) - Pigments and dyes (e.g., carotenoids, anthocyanins)
• What techniques are used to study secondary metabolites?

  Extraction and isolation, structural elucidation, biosynthesis studies, bioactivity screening, and metabolomics.
• What is a common method for extracting secondary metabolites?

  Chromatography.
• What is structural elucidation in the context of secondary metabolites?


  Determining the chemical structure using techniques like NMR and mass spectrometry.
• What is a common technique for determining the chemical structure of secondary metabolites?

  Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR).
• What is the purpose of bioactivity screening for secondary metabolites?

  To test for various biological activities, such as antimicrobial or antioxidant properties.
• What is metabolomics?


  Advanced analytical techniques used to profile the secondary metabolite composition of an organism.
• How do secondary metabolites contribute to ecological interactions?

  They mediate interactions such as defense against herbivores and attraction of pollinators.