Observation

• Naturalistic Observation


  The environment which where the experiment occurs is not controlled
• Advantages of Naturalistic Observation

  - High external validity as it can be generalised to everyday life
• Disadvantages of Naturalistic Observation

  - Lack of control over research, meaning it makes the replication difficult

  - May be uncontrolled extraneous variables that make it more hard to judge any pattern of behaviour
• Controlled Observation


  Environment is being controlled by the researcher
• Advantages of Controlled Observation

  - High control over research making it easier for replication

  - Extraneous variables may be less of a factor = easier replication
• Disadvantage of Controlled observation

  -low external validity meaning it cannot be generalised to real-life/everyday life settings
• Overt Observation


  This is when the participants are aware that they are being observed/watched
• Advantages of Overt Observation

  - Ethically acceptable
• Disadvantage of Overt Observation


  - The knowledge participants have that they are being observed may act as a significant impact on their behaviour (The observer effect) and (Demand characteristics)
• Covert Observation


  This is when the participants are unaware that they are being observed/watched
• Advantages of Covert Observation


  - They do not know that they are being watched which removed the problem of participant reactivity and their behaviour would be natural
• Disadvantage of Covert Observation

  - Ethics of these studies may be questioned as people may not want their behaviour to be noted down so its deception
• Participant Observation


  They are involved with the activity/ experiment that is taking place. For example they might put out suggestions for the participants
• Advantages of Participant Observation

  - Researcher can experience the situation as the participants do; increases insight into the lives of the people being studied

  - Increases validity of findings
• Disadvantages of Participant Observation

  - Researcher may come to identify too strongly with those they are studying and lose objective (going native)
• Non-participant Observation


  This is when the observer is watching but they would not interfere in anyway
• Advantages of Non-participant Observation

  - Allows the researcher to maintain an objective psychological distance from the participants so there's less danger of them 'going native
• Disadvantages of Non-participant Observation

  - Lose valuable insight to be gained in a participant observation as they are too far removed from the people and behaviour that they are studying
• Structured Observation


  The observer is only taking down specific things that they see
• Advantages of Structured Observation

  - An easier and more systematic way to collect data

  - Normally provides quantitative data which is easy to analyse for trends and patterns
• Disadvantage of Structured Observation

  - Only collecting quantitative data is collected which lacks validity as it is less detailed
• Un-structured Observation


  The observer is going to write down everything and anything that they see
• Advantages of Un-structured Observation

  - Qualitative data is obtained which is rich in detail and generally more valid
• Disadvantages of Un-structured Observation

  - Qualitative data is more difficult to analyse for trends and patterns as it is not numerical

  - Increased risk of observer bias as there are no objective criteria to look out for
• The observer effect


  The participants change their behaviour/demand characteristics because they are aware they are being watched
• Observer bias

  The observer's expectations affect what they see or hear. This reduces the validity of the observations
• Ways to minimise observer bias

  - One or more observers watch the same situation and then compare their records

  - Inter-observer reliability (the extent to which there is agreement between the observers involved in observations of behaviour)
• Behavioural categories


  List of specific behaviours that you're looking for in the observation and they have to be objective
• Event sampling

  Counting the number of times a specific behaviour occurs in a target individual or group of individuals.
• Time sampling


  Recording behaviours within a given time frame