gender bias

• gender bias 


  the differential treatment and/or representation of males + females, based on stereotypes and not on real differences
• alpha bias 


  an alpha bias refers to theories that exaggerate the differences between males and females
• beta bias


  a beta bias refers to theories that ignore or minimise sex differences. these theories often assume that the findings from studies using males can apply equally to females
• androcentrism 


  theories which are centred on, or focused on males
• different ways psychology can be biased:

  • the researchers carrying out the research....
  • their backgrounds and influences...
  • who the research participants are...
• universality + bias

  • psychologists possess beliefs and values that are influenced by the social + historical contexts they live in
  • this may then influence their research, findings and conclusions
  • this can undermine the universality of the research (it being applied to all human beings)
  • gender bias - the differential treatment/representation of men + women based on stereotypes rather than real differences
• alpha bias

  • when the differences between men + women are shown and may be exaggerated. either to heighten the value of women or devalue them or heighten the value of men or devalue them
  • these differences are presented as real + enduring, fixed + inevitable
• alpha bias

  • Wilson (1975) - Sociobiological theory of relationship formation focuses on ‘survival efficiency.’ Biological theories have universal applicability
  • The theory states that it is in a male’s interest to try and impregnate as many women as possible as this will guarantee that his genes will be passed down through generations.  
  • For the female her best chance is to ensure a healthy survival of her offspring which would guarantee that her genes are passed on.  
• alpha bias

  Carrying on from Wilson (1975):

  • Sexual promiscuity in males is genetically determined, while women who engage in similar activity are seen as going against their nature. This suggests the theory is Androcentric
  • This theory has been accused of exaggerating the differences between men and women (alpha bias)
• alpha bias

  Freuds psychodynamic theory

  For example Freud's work is alpha biased and androcentric as he argued that women were morally inferior to men because they suffered from penis envy.

  • As girls do not experience castration anxiety in the phallic stage – they’re not under same pressure to identify with same-sex parent.
  • Females then form a weaker superego and so her sense of morality is inferior to a males.
  • Femininity is an expression of failed masculinity.
  • Female vanity – is a defence mechanism, to make up for the sexual inferiority to men.
• beta bias

  •  When differences between the two sexes are ignored or minimised or underestimated. (for example by ignoring females in psychological research studies)
  • This often occurs when female participants are not included as part of the research process and it is then assumed that the research findings apply equally to both sexes
• beta bias

  • Early research into fight or flight was based exclusively on male animals and was assumed to be a universal response to a threatening situation.

  However more recent research….

  • Taylor et al (2000) suggested that human female biology, in particular, has evolved to inhibit the fight or flight response, shifting attention towards caring for offspring and forming defensive networks with other females. Tend and befriend (calming, protecting & nurturing, seeking support  to help)
• beta bias

  Kohlberg’s theory of moral development was beta biased because he only used males in his study and assumed females would respond or behave the same when tested.
• Kohlberg used a number of scenarios and asked his participants, all male, what they would do. He found that the kind morality displayed was a morality based on justice, the majority of the men were reluctant to or wouldn't break in to places to get the drugs needed to save their child because upholding the law was most important. He believed his findings represented typical or normal behaviour + so could be generalised universally across cultures + genders. Later research, using females, found that their morality was based more on care and not justice
• Kohlberg believed that a morality based on justice was a more mature and superior form of morality, delegating a morality based on care to a more immature and inferior form. So he believed that there wasn’t only a difference between men and women regards morality but that one was inferior to the other. So this theory is both beta biased and androcentric
• androcentrism (sexism)

  • this can be a consequence of both alpha + beta bias as in freud's + Kohlberg's theories
  • if our understanding of 'normal' behaviour is being drawn from research that involves 'all male' samples (beta biased research), then behaviour that deviates from this may be seen as 'abnormal' by comparison
  • female behaviour is, as a result, misunderstood + underrepresented
• androcentrism (sexism)

  How was Freud androcentric in his alpha biased research?

  • As girls do not experience castration anxiety in the phallic stage – they’re not under same pressure to identify with same-sex parent.
  • Females then form a weaker superego and so her sense of morality is inferior to a males.
  • Femininity is an expression of failed masculinity.
  • Female vanity – is a defence mechanism, to make up for the sexual inferiority to men.
• androcentrism - example PMS

  • PMS - feminist object to this as they believe that it is a social construct which stereotypes + trivialises the female experience

  they point out that female emotions + anger are seen as irrational due to hormones (biological determinism), whereas male emotions including anger is a rational (reasonable) response to external pressure. so it is sexist or androcentrist to suggest women's bad behaviour is due to their biology + so is out of their control + irrational but not for men
• AO3 negative implications

  gender bias research often has negative implications. Gender biased research may create misleading assumptions about female or male behaviour, fail to challenge negative stereotypes and validate discriminatory practises. It may provide a scientific ‘justification’ to deny women opportunities within the workplace or in wider society.
• AO3 negative implications pt2 


  It is not just a methodological problem buy may have damaging consequences which affect the lives and prospects of women, like the statistic that females are much less likely to get a diagnosis of Autism and so not get the required help and support. this is a limitation as the impact has real life consequences for women in their everyday life
• A03 androcentrism : autism + females

  Gender bias, caused women and girls to go undiagnosed.

  Autism was thought to be mainly a male problem at a ratio of 10 males to 1 female, because many early studies only used mostly males in brain imaging studies possibly due to girls being better at masking their autistic symptoms by, for example, copying another girl.
• A03 androcentrism : autism + females

  The failure to diagnose autism early in females meant they got less help and support leading to other health problems like anxiety, depression, anorexia and self-harm.

  So here we see the negative impact of gender bias, both beta bias and androcentrism, in psychological research.
• A03 :What can be done about Gender bias

  Psychology needs to be reflexive

  To address Alpha bias need a change in publication bias. The focus is on publishing studies, which show a gender difference and not where there is little or no difference. This exaggerates differences. All results from studies looking at gender differences should be published
• A03: what can be done about gender bias:

  to reduce beta bias

  • don't have all male samples, as in milligram, zimbardo + Asch studies or all female samples like moscovici's study of minority influence
  • don't generalise findings from research with all male samples to females or all female samples to males
• A03 : sexism 


  This is because of a lack of women appointed at senior research level means that female concerns may not be reflected in the research question asked. Male researchers are more likely to have their work published and studies which find evidence of gender differences are more likely to appear in journal articles than those that do not. Additionally, lab experiments may further disadvantage women. Female participants are often placed in an inequitable relationship with a male researcher who has the power to label them as unreasonable and irrational and unable to complete tasks.
• A03 sexism pt2

  limitation as it may mean that in some cases psychology may be guilty of supporting a form of sexism that creates bias in theory and research. With many more women doing Psychology now and in prominent research positions bias may well be in the opposite direction from what it traditionally was.
• A03: essentialism

  gender differences are based on an essentialist perspective. This is the perspective that the gender difference are inevitable and fixed in nature, in other words biological. Walkerdine reports that in the 1930s research revealed that intellectual activity, like going to university would shrink a woman’s ovaries and harm her chances of giving birth. Such accounts in psychology are politically motivated arguments disguised as biological facts.
• A03: essentialism pt2 


  PMS, a biological process, is often used by men and women themselves to explain women’s bad behaviour by saying  they can’t help themselves. It is used as an excuse. This is considered sexist because it demeans women by denying they can control their behaviour at these times but men’s bad behaviour is rational and is a choice  they have made. this is a limitation as it often creates a double standard in the way that behaviour is viewed from a male and a female's perspective
• reflexivity 


  modern psychology researchers are beginning to recognise the effect their own values + assumptions have on the nature of their work.

  Rather than see bias as a problem they embrace it + see it as a critical aspect of the research process
• Dambrin + Lambert (2008) : reflected on their own gender-related experiences in their research.

  Reflexivity is an important development in psych + has led to greater awareness of the role of personal bias in research.

  Many more females are entering the profession today perhaps making it more likely bias will be revealed
• Feminist psychologist 


  Feminist psychologist attempts to restore the imbalance between men + women. Warrel (1992) argues that a number of criteria should be adhered to in order to avoid gender bias. Including making sure women aren't the objects of the study but should also be the researchers. Women from all socioeconomic backgrounds, ethnicity should be included in research process so it is representative of women from all cultures
• gender differences 


  • women tend to be more interested in people, e.g social work, nursing and caring professions
  • men tend to be more interested in things e.g. more likely to be engineers and plumbers
  • Looking at the 2 big personality traits: women are more likely to be agreeable, much more trusting, kind + caring. Men are much more neurotic, lack confidence, anxious