Memory

• What does coding refer to in memory studies?


  Coding refers to the format or ‘type’ of information stored in each memory store.
• How is coding different in short-term memory compared to long-term memory?


  Coding is acoustic in short-term memory and semantic in long-term memory.
• Who demonstrated the differences in coding for short-term and long-term memory?

  Baddeley (1966) demonstrated the differences in coding.
• What did Baddeley find regarding recalling acoustically and semantically similar words?


  More mistakes are made when recalling acoustically similar words immediately and semantically similar words after 20 minutes.
• What does capacity refer to in memory studies?


  Capacity refers to the volume of information that can be kept in any memory store at one time.
• What is the capacity of short-term memory according to Miller?


  The capacity of short-term memory is thought to be 7 +/- 2 items.
• What is the significance of chunking in memory recall?


  Chunking helps us remember information by grouping it into manageable units, like 7 items.
• What did Jacobs demonstrate regarding letter and digit span?


  Jacobs found that the mean letter span was 7.3 and the mean digit span was 9.3.
• What does duration refer to in memory studies?


  Duration refers to the amount of time that information can be stored in each memory store.
• What is the duration of short-term memory as demonstrated by Petersen et al (1959)?


  The duration of short-term memory is 18-30 seconds.
• How did Petersen et al (1959) demonstrate the duration of short-term memory?


  They found that increasing retention intervals decreased the accuracy of recall of consonant syllables.
• What is the duration of long-term memory according to Bahrick et al (1975)?


  The duration of long-term memory is unlimited.
• What did Bahrick et al (1975) find regarding photo recognition of classmates over time?


  Photo recognition decreased from 90% to 70% between 15 and 46 years after graduating.
• What is a key issue with Jacobs' historical psychological research?


  The lack of standardization and appreciation of scientific methods may have influenced the results.
• What is a strength of Bahrick et al's 1975 study?

  It used meaningful stimuli and had high ecological validity.
• What are the key issues with Petersen et al and Miller et al studies?


  They feature low mundane realism due to the use of artificial stimuli.
• What recent research suggests about Miller's estimate of short-term memory capacity?


  Recent research suggests that the capacity is more similar to 4 chunks rather than 5-9 items.
• What does the multi-store memory model (MSM) represent?


  The MSM represents how memory is stored, transferred, retrieved, and forgotten.
• What are the three stores in the multi-store memory model?


  The three stores are sensory register, short-term memory, and long-term memory.
• What is the capacity and duration of the sensory register?


  The sensory register has a huge capacity but a duration of less than half a second.
• How does information pass from the sensory register to short-term memory?


  Information passes from the sensory register to short-term memory if we pay attention to it.
• What are the characteristics of short-term memory?

  STM is acoustically encoded, has a capacity of 7 +/- 2 items, and a duration of 18-30 seconds.
• What is maintenance rehearsal in short-term memory?


  Maintenance rehearsal is repeating new information to keep it in short-term memory.
• What happens to information without maintenance rehearsal?


  A lack of maintenance rehearsal causes forgetting.
• What is the encoding and capacity of long-term memory?


  LTM is semantically encoded, has unlimited capacity, and a very long duration.
• What must occur for information to be remembered from long-term memory?

  Retrieval must occur to transfer information back into short-term memory.
• What are the different types of long-term memory proposed by Tulving et al?


  The types are procedural, semantic, and episodic memory.
• How does the multi-store model of memory view long-term memory?


  The MSM sees long-term memory as a single, unitary store.
• What is the difference in retrieval between procedural and semantic memories?


  Procedural memories can be retrieved unconsciously, while semantic memories must be retrieved consciously.
• What did Petersen et al. find regarding the neurological basis of semantic and episodic memories?


  Petersen et al. found that semantic memories were recalled from the left prefrontal cortex and episodic memories from the right prefrontal cortex.
• What is a practical application of differentiating between types of long-term memory?


  Understanding episodic memory can lead to targeted treatments for mild cognitive impairments.
• What distinction did Cohen and Squire make regarding memories?


  Cohen and Squire distinguished between declarative (episodic and semantic) and non-declarative (procedural) memories.
• How do the cases of HM and Clive Wearing support the classification of different types of long-term memory?


  They show that one type of LTM can be impaired while others remain unaffected.
• What does the Working Memory Model (WMM) suggest about short-term memory?


  The WMM suggests that STM is made up of the central executive, phonological loop, visuo-spatial sketchpad, and episodic buffer.
• What is the role of the central executive in the Working Memory Model?


  The central executive allocates tasks to the three slave systems and has a limited processing capacity.
• What does the phonological loop do in the Working Memory Model?


  The phonological loop processes auditory information and allows for maintenance rehearsal.
• What is the function of the visuo-spatial sketchpad?


  The visuo-spatial sketchpad combines visual and spatial information to create a complete picture.
• What is the capacity of the visuo-spatial sketchpad according to Baddeley?


  The capacity of the visuo-spatial sketchpad is around 4-5 chunks.
• What does the episodic buffer do in the Working Memory Model?


  The episodic buffer integrates all types of data processed by the other stores and links STM to LTM.
• What is a criticism of the central executive in the Working Memory Model?


  The central executive has not been precisely defined, leading to doubts about its accuracy.